Teenagers using steriods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Teenagers using steriods - Essay Example S is suggested to be ddictive in some users nd especilly in teengers. In ddition, teengers often use other illicit drugs nd there is the risk for spred of heptitis nd HIV to originlly low-risk popultions through shring needles in S injection (DuRnt et l., 2003). S use in teengers my cuse premture closure of the growth pltes over the bones resulting in permnent short. The initition of S use hs mostly been found to tke plce sometime during teengers. The prevention of S use should therefore be considered n importnt tsk not only within sports but lso for the public t lrge. The serch for risk nd protective fctors for S use in teengers is vitl. Rte of lifetime use mong United Sttes high-school students vries between 4% nd 12% for mles nd 0.5% nd 2% for femles (Bhrke et l., 1998). Lower figures hve been reported in other countries; rtes vry between 1.2% nd 3.2% for mles nd 0.2% nd 2.0% for femles in ustrli (Beel et l., 1998), for exmple. One report showed firly similr rte (12-month) in Cnd (4.1% in mles nd 1.5% in femles) (Cndin Centre for Drug-Free Sports, 2003). Prevlence of S use mong frikns-speking sport prticipnts hs been reported to be in the sme rnge (e.g., 2.5%), wheres much lower rtes were found in the generl dolescent student popultion in South fric. Studies from different regions in Sweden hve provided vrying lifetime estimtes for dolescents: 5.8% for mles nd 1.0% for femles versus 2.1% nd 0.2%, respectively (Kindlundh et l., 1999). Substntil regionl differences hve lso been found in the U.S. s well s in South fric. With the exceptions of Cnd, ntionl dt re lcking. The current knowledge bout S use, therefore, need s to be supplemented by lrge-scle nd ntionlly representtive smples from sites outside North meric. S reserch hs been mostly descriptive in nture. There hve been some ttempts t more theoreticlly driven reserch, but differing theoreticl perspectives hve rrely been contrsted. Theories of S use hve hd t lest three different viewpoints. First, mny studies hve tken sports perspective, nd these studies hve noted such motives s winning nd performing well in thletics. Thus, the prevlence of S use mong top thletes hs been reported to be high in such sports s footbll, trck nd field, weight lifting, body building nd possibly lso self-defense sports nd mrtil rts (Fields et l., 2004). High rtes of use hve been found t subelite levels nd mong college nd high-school thletes (Bhrke et l., 1998). Second, muscles not only mke you win, they fit the present-dy body idel. For men, this body idel implies upper torso strength nd mesomorph body type. For women, this is defined s slimness, prticulrly from the wist down, coupled with lrge brests (Wichstrom, 2000). To look good or to be big re the prime motives for S use mong gym-bsed weight triners nd mong the top two motives in the generl dolescent popultion. Eting problems nd concerns hve been found in mle body-builders nd S users. Possibly "reverse norexi" (Pope et l., 2000) nd hence S use hve prtly the sme etiology s eting disorders, including poor self-concept nd poor body stisfction. However, mong norml dolescents one of the prime motives for looking good is to enhnce one's chnces with the opposite gender, nd one could therefore

Minor capacity judgement Essay Example for Free

Minor capacity judgement Essay Mohori Bibee and another Vs. Dharmodas Ghose Mohori Bibee and another Vs. Dharmodas Ghose Options Dock Print PDF Court :  Kolkata Reported in :  (1903)30IndianAppeals114 Judge :  Lord Macnaghten; Lord Davey; Lord Lindley; Sir Ford North; Sir Andrew Scoble; Sir Andrew Wilson, JJ. Decided On :  Mar-04-1903 Acts :  Indian Evidence Act, 1877 Section 115; Indian Contract Act Sections 41, 19, 64, 65 Appellant :  Mohori Bibee and another Respondent :  Dharmodas Ghose Advocate for Respondent :  W. W. Box, Adv. Advocate for Appellant :  Watkins; Lempriere, Advs. Judgment: SIR FORD NORTH, J. On July 20, 1895, the respondent, Dhurmodas Ghose, executed a mortgage in favour of Brahmo Dutt, a money-lender carrying on business at Calcutta and elsewhere, to secure the repayment of Rs. 20,000 at 12 per cent. interest on some houses belonging to the respondent. The amount actually advanced is in dispute. At that time the respondent was an infant; and he did not attain twenty-one until the month of September following. Throughout the transaction Brahmo Dutt was absent from Calcutta, and the whole business was carried through for him by his attorney, Kedar Nath Mitter, the money being found by Dedraj, the local manager of Brahmo Dutt. While considering the proposed advance, Kedar Nath received information that the respondent was still a minor; and on July 15, 1895, the following letter was written and sent to him by Bhupendra Nath Bose, an attorney:— â€Å"Dear Sir,—I am instructed by S. M. Jogendranundinee Dasi, the mother and guardian appointed by the High Court under its letters patent of the person and property of Babu Dhurmodas Ghose, that a mortgage of the properties of the said Babu Dhurmodas Ghose is being prepared from your office. I am instructed to give you notice, which I hereby do, that the said Babu Dhurmodas Ghose is still an infant under the age of twenty-one, and any one lending money to him will do so at his own risk and peril. † Kedar Nath positively denied the receipt of any such letter; but the Court of first instance and the Appellate Court both held that he did personally receive it on July 15; and the evidence is conclusive upon the point. On the day on which the mortgage was executed, Kedar Nath got the infant to sign a long declaration, which, he had prepared for him, containing a statement that he came of age on June 17; and that Babu Dedraj and Brahmo Dutt, relying on his assurance that he had attained his majority, had agreed to advance to him Rs. 0,000. There is conflicting evidence as to the time when and circumstances under which that declaration was obtained; but it is unnecessary to go into this, as both Courts below have held that Kedar Nath did not act upon, and was not misled by, that statement, and was fully aware at the time the mortgage was executed of the minority of the respondent. It may be added here that Kedar Nath was the attorney and agent of Brahmo Dutt, and says in his evidence that he got the declaration for the greater security of his â€Å"client. † The infant had not any separate legal adviser. On September 10, 1895, the infant, by his mother and guardian as next friend, commenced this action against Brahmo Dutt, stating that he was under age when he executed the mortgage, and praying for a declaration that it was void and inoperative, and should be delivered up to be cancelled. The defendant, Brahmo Dutt, put in a defence that the plaintiff was of full age when he executed the mortgage; that neither he nor Kedar Nath had any notice that the plaintiff was then an infant; that, even if he was a minor, the declaration as to his age was fraudulently made to deceive the defendant, and disentitled the plaintiff to any relief; and that in any case the Court should not grant the plaintiff any relief without making him repay the moneys advanced. By a further statement the defendant alleged that the plaintiff had ubsequently ratified the mortgage; but this case wholly failed, and is not the subject of appeal. Jenkins J. , who presided in the Court of first instance, found the facts as above stated, and granted the relief asked. And the Appellate Court dismissed the appeal from him. Subsequently to the institution of the present appeal Brahmo Dutt died, and this appeal has been prosecuted by his executors. The first of the appellants reasons in support of the present appeal is that the Courts below were wrong in holding that the knowledge of Kedar Nath must be imputed to the defendant. In their Lordships opinion they were obviously right. The defendant was absent from Calcutta, and personally did not take any part in the transaction. It was entirely in charge of Kedar Nath, whose full authority to act as he did is not disputed. He stood in the place of the defendant for the purposes of this mortgage; and his acts and knowledge were the acts and knowledge of his principal. It was contended that Dedraj, the defendants gomastha, was the real representative in Calcutta of the defendant, and that he had no knowledge of the plaintiffs minority. But there is nothing in this. He no doubt made the advance out of the defendants funds. But he says in his evidence that â€Å"Kedar Babu was acting on behalf of my master from the beginning in this matter†; and a little further on he adds that before the registration of the mortgage he did not communicate with his master on the subject of the minority. But he did know that there was a question raised as to the plaintiffs age; and he says, â€Å"I left all matters regarding the minority in the hands of Kedar Babu. † The appellants counsel contended that the plaintiff is estopped by s. 115 of the Indian Evidence Act (I. f 1872) from setting up that he was an infant when he executed the mortgage. The section is as follows: â€Å"Estoppel. When one person has by his declaration act or omission intentionally caused or permitted another person to believe a thing to be true, and to act upon such belief, neither he nor his representative shall be allowed in any suit or proceeding between himself and such person or his representative to deny the truth of that thing. † The Courts below seem to have decided that this section does not apply to infants; but their Lordships do not think it necessary to deal with that question now. They consider it clear that the section does not apply to a case like the present, where the statement relied upon is made to a person who knows the real facts and is not misled by the untrue statement. There can be no estoppel where the truth of the matter is known to both parties, and their Lordships hold, in accordance with English authorities, that a false representation, made to a person who knows it to be false, is not such a fraud as to take away the privilege of infancy: Nelson v. Stocker. 0 The same principle is recognised in the explanation to s. 19 of the Indian Contract Act, in which it is said that a fraud or misrepresentation which did not cause the consent to a contract of the party on whom such fraud was practised, or to whom such misrepresentation was made, does not render a contract voidable. The point most pressed, however, on behalf of the appellants was that the Courts ought not to have decreed in the respondents favour without ordering him to repay to the appell ants the sum of Rs. 0,500, said to have been paid to him as part of the consideration for the mortgage. And in support of this contention s. 64 of the Contract Act (IX. of 1872) was relied on:— â€Å"Sect. 64. When a person at whose option a contract is voidable rescinds it, the other party thereto need not perform any promise therein contained of which he is promisor. The party rescinding a voidable contract shall, if he have received any benefit thereunder from another party to such contract, restore such benefit, so far as may be, to the person from whom it was received.    Both Courts below held that they were bound by authority to treat the contracts of infants as voidable only, and not void; but that this section only refers to contracts made by persons competent to contract, and therefore not to infants. The general current of decision in India certainly is that ever since the passing of the Indian Contract Act (IX, of 1872) the contracts of infants are voidable onl y. This conclusion, however, has not been arrived at without vigorous protests by various judges from time to time; nor indeed without decisions to the contrary effect. Under these circumstances, their Lordships consider themselves at liberty to act on their own view of the law as declared by the Contract Act, and they have thought it right to have the case reargued before them upon this point. They do not consider it necessary to examine in detail the numerous decisions above referred to, as in their opinion the whole question turns upon what is the true construction of the Contract Act itself. It is necessary, therefore, to consider carefully the terms of that Act; but before doing so it may be convenient to refer to the Transfer of Property Act (IV of 1882), s. of which provides that every person competent to contract and entitled to transferable property. . . . is competent to transfer such property. . . . in the circumstances, to the extent, and in the manner allowed and prescribed by any law for the time bring in force. That is the Act under which the present mortgage was made, and it is merely dealing with persons competent to contract; and s . 4 of that Act provides that the chapters and sections of that Act which relate to contracts are to be taken as part of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. The present case, therefore, falls within the provisions of the latter Act. Then, to turn to the Contract Act, s. 2 provides: (e) Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement. (g) An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be void. (h) An agreement enforceable by law is a contract. (i) An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the parties thereto, but not at the option of the other or others, is a voidable contract. Sect. 0 provides: â€Å"All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void. † Then s. 11 is most important, as defining who are meant by â€Å"persons competent to contract†; it is as follows; â€Å"Every person is competent to contract who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is o f sound mind, and is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject. † Looking at these sections, their Lordships are atisfied that the Act makes it essential that all contracting parties should be â€Å"competent to contract,† and expressly provides that a person who by reason of infancy is incompetent to contract cannot make a contract within the meaning of the Act. This is clearly borne out by later sections in the Act. Sect. 68 provides that, â€Å"If a person incapable of entering into a contract, or any one whom he is legally bound to support, is supplied by another person with necessaries suited to his condition in life, the person who has furnished such supplies is entitled to be reimbursed from the property of such incapable person. It is beyond question that an infant falls within the class of persons here referred to as incapable of entering into a contract; and it is clear from the Act that he is not to be liable even for necessaries, a nd that no demand in respect thereof is enforceable against him by law, though a statutory claim is created against his property. Under ss. 183 and 184 no person under the age of majority can employ or be an agent. Again, under ss. 47 and 248, although a person under majority may be admitted to the benefits of a partnership, he cannot be made personally liable for any of its obligations; although he may on attaining majority accept those obligations if he thinks fit to do so. The question whether a contract is void or voidable presupposes the existence of a contract within the meaning of the Act, and cannot arise in the case of an infant. Their Lordships are, therefore, of opinion that in the present case there is not any such voidable contract as is dealt with in s. 64. A new point was raised here by the appellants counsel, founded on s. 5 of the Contract Act, a section not referred to in the Courts below, or in the cases of the appellants or respondent. It is sufficient to say tha t this section, like s. 64. starts from the basis of there being an agreement or contract between competent parties, and has no application to a case in which there never was, and never could have been, any contract. It was further argued that the preamble of the Act shewed that the Act was only intended to define and amend certain parts of the law relating to contracts, and that contracts by infants were left outside the Act. If this were so, it does not appear how it would help the appellants. But in their Lordships opinion the Act, so far as it goes, is exhaustive and imperative, and does provide in clear language that an infant is not a person competent to bind himself by a contract of this description. Another enactment relied upon as a reason why the mortgage money should be returned is s. 41 of the Specific Relief Act (I. of 1877), which is as follows: â€Å"Sect. 41. On adjudging the cancellation of an instrument the Court may require the party to whom such relief is granted to make any compensation to the other which justice may require. Sect. 38 provides in similar terms for a case of rescission of a contract. These sections, no doubt, do give a discretion to the Court; but the Court of first instance, and subsequently the Appellate Court, in the exercise of such discretion, came to the conclusion that under the circumstances of this case justice did not require them to order the return by the r espondent of money advanced to him with full knowledge of his infancy, and their Lordships see no reason for interfering with the discretion so exercised. It was also contended that one who seeks equity must do equity. But this is the last point over again, and does not require further notice except by referring to a recent decision of the Court of Appeal in Thurstan v. Nottingham Permanent Benefit Building Society21, since affirmed by the House of Lords. 22 In that case a female infant obtained from the society of which she was a member part of the purchase-money of some property she purchased; and the society also agreed to make her advances to complete certain buildings thereon. They made the advances, and took from her a mortgage for the amount. On attaining twenty-one she brought the action to have the mortgage declared void under the Infants Relief Act. The Court held that, as regards the purchase-money paid to the vendor, the society was entitled to stand in his place and had a lien upon the property, but that the mortgage must be declared void, and that the society was not entitled to any repayment of the advances. Dealing with this part of their claim Romer L. J, says23: â€Å"The short answer is that a Court of Equity cannot say that it is equitable to compel a person to pay any moneys in respect of a transaction which as against that person the Legislature has declared to be void. So here. Their Lordships observe that the construction which they have put upon the Contract Act seems to be in accordance with the old Hindu Law as declared in the laws of Menu, ch. viii. 163; and Colebrookes Dig. liii. 2, vol. ii. p. 181; although there are no doubt, decisions of some weight that before the Indian Contract Act an infants contract was voidable only in accordance with English law as it then stood. The appeal, therefore, wholly fails; and their Lordships will humbly advise His Majesty that it should be dismissed. The appellants must pay the costs of the appeal.

Theme of Self-discovery in The Awakening and A Dolls House Essay

The Theme of Self-discovery in The Awakening and A Doll House      Ã‚  Ã‚   In Chopin's The Awakening and Ibsen's A Doll House, the main characters each experience an awakening. Although they lead different lives, Nora Helmer and Edna Pontellier's respective awakenings are caused by similar factors. From the beginning, neither character fits the standard stereotype of women in the society in which they lived. Another factor that influences Nora and Edna's awakenings is their marital relationship. Neither Nora nor Edna are treated as an equal by their husband. When each woman realizes that she is unhappy, she understands that she must leave her position and role in life in order to fully find herself.    Nora and Edna are not perfect models of the late nineteenth century woman. Women in this time period were under the control of either a father or a husband. Each woman was expected to become a wife and mother. Both Edna and Nora have nurses to care for their children, taking over the role of mother. In The Awakening, Edna is described as a woman who is "not a mother-woman" (Chopin 10). During the summer at Grand Isle, the other mother-women watch their children carefully, clothe them, bathe them, and take care of them. Unlike the others, Edna walks the beach while her children are being protected by their nurse. Edna's sentiments toward her children are best described in Chopin's narrative: "She was fond of her children in an uneven impulsive way. She would sometimes gather them passionately to her heart; she would sometimes forget them" (24).    In A Doll House, Anne-Marie is the nurse who watches over Nora and Torvald's three children. Anne-Marie is more of a mother to the children than Nora is. For example, when the... ...ad to their respective awakenings. Edna and Nora are not typical nineteenth century women in respect to their roles as mother and wife. They both have marriages in which true love does not exist. Later, each must leave her life to discover the woman who lies hidden inside.    Works Cited and Consulted: Chopin, Kate. The Awakening. The Norton Anthology of American Literature. Ed. Nina Baym et al. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1985. Durbach, Errol. A Doll's House: Ibsen's Myth of Transformation. Boston: Twayne, 1991. Ewell, Barbara C. Kate Chopin. New York: Ungar, 1986 Henrik Ibsen, A Doll's House. Dover Thrift Edition, 1992 Martin, Wendy, ed. "Introduction." New Essays on The (Awakening. New York, NY: Cambridge UP, 1988. Templeton, Joan. "The Doll House Backlash: Criticism, Feminism, and Ibsen." PMLA (January 1989): 28-40.

Although Short, John Updikes a & P Is Big On Enjoyment :: essays research papers

Although Short, John Updike's "A & P" is Big on Enjoyment I enjoy stories that are long and involved. However, the short story "A & P" by John Updike is a wonderful exception to this rule. Updike writes the story from a viewpoint of what I believe to be a younger, more contemporary person. The story contains many other enjoyable attributes, such as the comments about young girls' flesh. I found the story to be a good read and although I typically don't like stories that are short and uninvolved, I was able to gain a lot of enjoyment from this work. The story begins with little-to-no foreshadowing and doesn't enlighten the reader until about half way through the piece. All of the sudden, the reader is cast into an "A & P" grocery store in what I would think to be the late 1950's. Although undocumented, the writer gives details that point to this time period. I didn't think I would enjoy the story because it doesn't provide much background information on anything. However, as I began to read the story I was able to create background information of my own which changed my opinion about the story altogether. I found the work to be enjoyable in other ways as well. I got the impression that the main character was a younger fellow. His comments and actions sounded more immature than mature, so I was able to relate more closely to the work. I found that there were many thought processes that are similar to an adolescent boys, rather than to a more experienced adult. A good example of this can be seen toward the end of paragraph 2 when he gives his interpretation of what happens in a girls mind. He makes a simile to a bee buzzing in a glass jar. A mature person would never make a statement that is so thoughtless. I enjoyed it very much. I'm able to make a few emotional connections to Sammy, the main character, as well.. In the story, there are many clues that point to him as a girl watcher / admirer. I tend to think that all gentlemen at that age and maturity level feel similar ways toward the opposite sex. In the passage, "...you know, the kind of girl the other girls think is very 'striking' and 'attractive' but never quite makes it, as they very well know, which is why they

Understanding The Complexities Of Life Education Essay

My schooling and college was really of import factor in determining my calling. Excellent classs in board scrutinies, 83 % in 10th class and 82 % in 12th class, ever kept me in top 5 % of the school. Excellent module, which ever focused on the basicss, motivated me to analyze harder and with complete apprehension of the topic. In my college, I became peculiarly interested in the field of Biology as I was ever amazed by the diverseness and complexness of life around me ; I chose to analyze biological science in more item. I chose Biotechnology as my major for my bachelor'sA grade ( B.Sc. ) along with chemical science and fauna as bush leagues. Biotechnology helped me understand applied biological science in great inside informations. I besides attended an on occupation developing under Annual Biotechnology Training plan at Haffkin Institute, Mumbai where I got more exposure to practical biotechnology, different biophysical techniques and instrumentality. Parallel to all this, I was be sides interested in computing machines right from my school yearss. A class on programming in C, gave me an chance to larn computing machine scheduling and its applications. Having heard of bioinformatics as a combination of biological science and computing machines, I applied for and got selected through big figure of applications to go to a workshop on bioinformatics at Indian Institute of Technology ( IIT ) , Mumbai. Here, I was introduced to power of computing machines to reply inquiries in biological science. My apprehension of biological science, love towards computing machines and penetration into the universe of bioinformatics and its applications through my course of study and the workshop worked as a strong motive for me to take the specialisation for my maestro ‘s grade. I determined to prosecute my farther surveies in the field of bioinformatics and computational biological science with an purpose of utilizing potencies of computing machine systems and of recent pr omotions in the field of information engineering in order to analyze biological science with more easiness and at accelerated rate. I was selected to prosecute my Maestro of Science ( MSc ) in bioinformatics at Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune, India, through a countrywide entryway scrutiny. I was ranked 8th from around 1000 appliers who appeared for the trial. My systematically good public presentation in entryway trial and in subsequent semesters made me eligible for Prof G. N. Ramchandran family and Dept. of Biotechnology, Govt. of India scholarship to prosecute my maestro ‘s degree instruction. Bioinformatics Centre is one of the Prime Minister institutes in India which is renowned for its part in the bioinformatics research and in developing good bioinformatics human resource. Two old ages of strict preparation in bioinformatics taught me a batch about this astonishing merger of biological scientific disciplines and information scientific disciplines. I was introduced to different computing machine scheduling linguistic communications and resources for application development in bioinformatics . Classs in biological science, computing machines and accent on their appropriate integrating made me believe of biological science in a really different and unconventional mode. In our 2nd semester, we had a capable Structural Biology and Molecular Modeling ( SBMM ) , where we were introduced to bio-macromolecular constructions with a computational and biophysical position. With the survey for this peculiar class, I became more focussed on my country of involvement. Surveies of structural biological science of proteins were truly an interesting portion of my course of study. Eminent scientists from different national research institutes gave us penetrations into the structural biological science of different biomolecules. I can non travel without adverting names of some of my instructors, Prof Ashok Kolaskar ( adviser, OHSL, USA and adviser, Internet2 ) , Dr. Dhananjay Bhattacharyya ( Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics ) , Dr. Raja Banerjee ( West Bengal University of Technology ) , Dr. Uddhavesh Sonawane ( C-DAC ) , Prof P. V. Balaji ( IIT, Mumbai ) to call a few. My first research experience in the field of Bioinformatics was my maestro ‘s degree research undertaking under the counsel Dr. Pramod Wangikar in his Bio-systems Engineering Lab at Chemical Engineering section of Indian Institute of Technology ( IIT ) , Mumbai. Though it was non straight connected to my country of involvement, it gave me insights into how research methodological analysis works for computational biological science. Here I worked with analysis of regulative elements of cyanobacteria- Synechocystis as a little portion of big systems biological science undertaking traveling on in his lab. This undertaking, as a whole, was taking towards constructing a systemic theoretical account of Synechocystis. My part was to use microarray informations for cistron look of all Synechocystis cistrons and written text factor adhering site analysis in order to footnote some of the cistrons. I could foretell the map of two cistrons which found to be related to photosynthetic tract but were unknown boulder clay day of the month. I got familiar with the existent life applications of different tools and techniques that I had studied earlier. From here, I determined to prosecute my calling in the research field and contribute as per my capablenesss to the scientific community. After MSc, I worked under the counsel of Prof Valadi Jayaraman from Center for Development of Advanced Computing ( C-DAC ) , India. I worked with Prof Jayaraman on short term undertaking titled Prediction of RNA adhering proteins utilizing random woods. His first-class counsel and my difficult work contributed to my apprehension of machine acquisition applications in biological science and utilizing information from biological constructions for better apprehension of the biological procedures. The undertaking involved extraction of of import characteristics from the RNA adhering sphere of many RNA binding proteins and developing the random forest classifier to do accurate anticipations about RNA adhering belongingss of unknown proteins. This once more provided me with a really utile technique of machine acquisition for work outing jobs in biological science and besides enhanced my accomplishments of computing machine programming for existent life applications. Parallel to this work with Prof Jayaraman, I besides worked in an industry, Persistent Systems Limited, Pune as Domain Analyst, where I learnt a batch about industrial position of bioinformatics and recent IT advancements assisting bioinformatics grow. It gave me an chance to form my ideas, represent myself professionally and to larn clip and resource direction. I worked on supplying preparation and support to many of US universities, our clients, for caTissue clinical information sciences application. But my passion and finding for making research prepared my head to go forth industry and carry out research. I applied for the station of Research Associate at Bioinformatics Centre, University of Pune. I got selected after strict interview procedure by an elegant panel under the Centre of Excellence ( CoE ) grant of Dept. of Biotechnology ( DBT ) , Govt. of India. Here I started working on some of the authorities funded undertakings. I worked on â€Å" Understanding the mechanism of anisomycin induced activation of p38 MAP kinase utilizing computational attack † under the high counsel of Dr. Sangeeta Sawant. Anisomycin is an antibiotic, which besides activates p38 MAP kinase, an of import constituent of signal transduction. But no information is available on how precisely it binds to and activates p38 MAP kinase. I attempted to execute molecular docking surveies and molecular kineticss simulation experiments. This work resulted in happening out putative binding site for anisomycin on p38 MAPK and in understanding different molecular interactions taking topographic point at the inter face of these two molecules. I learnt a batch about structural belongingss of proteins and power of MD Simulations to research mechanisms underlying cellular procedures. I used Amber molecular kineticss simulation bundle extensively to transport out the simulations. Another undertaking was â€Å" Analyzing the comparative stablenesss of conformational antigenic determinants: a instance survey of muramidase † , which was carried out under the counsel of Dr. Sangeeta Sawant and Dr. Urmila Kulkarni-Kale. This survey was carried out to understand the comparative stablenesss of single antigenic determinants and happening out antigenic determinants which might retain their stableness during their processing. We could back up the hypothesis that such antigenic determinants do be and can be identified. Possible application of this survey would be in placing possible drug/vaccine marks. We used blossoming simulation technique to analyze the phenomenon. I am happy to province that a po rtion of this work was presented with batch of grasp at International Conference on Biomolecular Forms and Functions, held at Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and complete work is in concluding phases of its entry for publication. Both these undertakings equipped me with a needed attitude to transport out research and believe in a logical and rational manner to come to a solution. It made my foundations about structural biological science, biophysical chemical science and computing machine simulations stronger than they were. Currently I am keeping the same place and seeking to take my work to a logical terminal. Presently, I am besides involved in the development of Chemical Reaction Optimization ( CRO ) based cistron choice algorithm under the counsel of Prof Valadi Jayaraman of C-DAC, Pune. This undertaking work, which had merely started, is using my scheduling and bioinformatics accomplishments to plan and implement cistron choice algorithm utilizing CRO, a late proposed optimisation technique. I besides served as a sing module of bioinformatics for biotechnology pupils at Ruia College, Mumbai, which prepared me for my sphere capable with more duties. It helped me to go more confident and responsible to do others understand bioinformatics in a elusive mode. Teaching microarray informations analysis at University of Pune, Pune and Patkar College, Mumbai besides helped my instruction accomplishments grow. I besides organized and conducted a four twenty-four hours workshop on bioinformatics for life scientists at Ruia College. Success of this workshop and positive response from the participant made me confident about my organisational accomplishments. I have attended big figure of conferences and workshops, have presented my work at national degree conferences therefore have had changeless updates about new kingdom of biological research. I besides appeared for BioInformatics National Certification ( BINC ) scrutiny, conducted by Dept. of Biotechnology ( DBT ) , Govt. of India , to prove the ability of bioinformatics human resource and certify and congratulate really few of them who deserve to be good bioinformaticians. This test is of import in manner that it holds three documents, two usual aim and theory inquiries which test your capable cognition and one practical session which examines your ability to compose computing machine plans for bioinformatics. I was awarded BINC enfranchisement with All India Rank ( AIR ) 14 and besides a family to prosecute farther research in the field. BINC enfranchisement boosted my assurance about my cognition of bioinformatics. I besides have received grasp from module for good computing machine scheduling and presently I am involved in development of a plan suit for incorporating phyletic analysis package tools to fix an machine-controlled grapevine. Proteins, indispensable biomolecules, are the workhorses of all the cellular maps. Their features and maps are chiefly attributed to their third construction. Always amazed by the manner this machinery works ; I am interested to work on structural bioinformatics of proteins and their interactions with other molecules. My primary research involvements continue to be in the development of fresh methodological analysiss to understand mechanisms underlying cellular procedures. There are many other research countries in structural biological science which involvement me like molecular mold and molecular kineticss simulation, algorithm development and executions, protein construction development, understanding the protein-protein interactions, anticipation of protein construction all of which are interlinked in a manner or other. I have been introduced to protein construction by high panel of scientists working in this country, and that has elevated my involvements to a greater tallness and inspired me to prosecute research in the same. My twelvemonth long research experience in the field of molecular kineticss simulations and molecular moorage, in order to understand the mechanisms of biological procedures and for easing vaccinum development hold given me needed experience. Besides, it introduced me to some of the restrictions and demands of bing methods of protein construction analysis. One of my research involvements is to come up with a newer representation of protein construction for usage in molecular kineticss simulation. Currently available methods require truly thorough calculation power as it involves tremendous computations on each and every atom of the system. It takes immense sum of clip on simple machines to run a molecular kineticss simulation. While working with assorted simulations, I have ob served that inexplicit solvent theoretical accounts can be good mark to accomplish this end. There is a demand to better these theoretical accounts in such a manner that they will come close expressed solvent simulations in a better manner. One of the ways in which it might work is deducing forms of interactions from expressed solvent systems and integrating them in inexplicit dissolver theoretical accounts. Current inexplicit dissolver theoretical accounts include theoretical consequence of solvent molecules but we could better these theoretical accounts by presenting non merely distance dependance, but besides clip dependent solvent interactions. It means that we could present consequence of existent dissolver system at specific clip intervals by adding some solvent molecules and redefine the theoretical account after each interval therefore propagating the alterations brought approximately by solvent molecules. Another research country which entreaties me most is protein construction anticipation. Looking back in the history of bioinformatics, tremendous attempts have been taken to understand and foretell protein construction, which in bend imparts map to the protein. Our limited success even after such tremendous attempts illustrates why protein construction anticipation is known as Holy Grail of bioinformatics. Though I have had no experience in the country, I find it really interesting country to work upon and use my cognition of protein chemical science, machine acquisition and computing machine scheduling and algorithms to lend to the field. As we look at the of import mileposts in the history of computing machine scientific discipline, we can see distinguishable markers in the development of unreal intelligence. On one manus, biological science is researching expertness from assorted subjects to be utilized in biological research and on the other manus, techniques in computing machine scientific discipline have of all time since widened their pertinence sphere. With this, my profound involvement in computing machines and my passion for biological science has widened my research ends to applications of machine larning techniques in bioinformatics and computational biological science. I have strong experience in utilizing support vector machines and random forest classifiers for work outing simple biological jobs and I wish to travel farther and assist work out much more complex jobs utilizing machine acquisition. Currently I am involved in the development of chemical reaction optimisation ( CRO ) based cistron choice alg orithm. My primary involvement in this country is foretelling accurate ligand adhering sites on a protein construction. Current ligand adhering site anticipation algorithms work on rather generalised rules like geometry based, energy based etc. I strongly think that protein pit sensing for proper ligand binding should be based on more empirical rules and cognition should be brought in from big figure of known protein pits and ligands. Categorization of proteins and ligand into several categories and qualifying each category on certain belongingss seems indispensable to me before using any generalised ligand adhering site anticipation algorithm. Another facet that I would wish to research is protein turn uping and kineticss. Most of the attempts we have made understand an indispensable procedure of protein turn uping property it to the built-in belongingss of proteins, but many of the experimental consequences have shown that many other factors in the cell contribute to the protein turn uping procedure. Chaperons, microenvironment, different ions besides play a function. I would wish to travel a measure further and seek to garner all these factors together in a computational paradigm and seek understand turn uping in better mode. Folding of a protein, which is important measure in finding its maps and interactions, will assist in developing new drug marks and interventions for assorted diseases. These are some of the jobs I would wish to work upon. My long clip calling ends are to set up myself as a research worker in the field of protein scientific discipline and contribute as per my capablenesss to the society. I besides want to be invariably indulged in learning biological science, as I truly bask learning and sharing my cognition. Besides it makes me more confident with the topic I teach. With my preparation and experiences, and my research and calling ends, I need a suited topographic point where I can use my cognition and experience to develop my thoughts further and set them to people ‘s usage. While seeking for such environment, I was peculiarly attracted by a really fresh plan in Mathematical, Computational and Systems Biology at University of California, Irvine. Amazing blend of first-class research workers from assorted subjects would certainly do a difference. That ‘s why I decided to use at UCI. I am peculiarly interested in the work of Ray Luo.

Police officer cover letter Essay Example

Police officer cover letter Essay Example Police officer cover letter Essay Police officer cover letter Essay Cover letter for police officer Police officers and detectives are individuals who have undergone extensive training in order to excel in their work. Since I am interested in becoming a police officer, I have a plan on how to build my career. This is because I want to ensure that my country is free and crime rates are reduced. My plan involves undertaking the necessary education requirements and training requirements before joining the police force. It also involves interacting with the relevant individuals such as those who have retired. Through this, I believe that I will be able to build a proper career. The first important step that I want to plan for before joining the police force is to undergo the necessary education requirements. There are different education requirements for becoming a police officer that can range from high school certificate to a degree in college (Gresham Para. 2). However, I plan to attain a college degree so as to have higher chances of being recruited in the force. Basically, I plan to pursue a bachelors degree in criminal justice (Gresham Para. 2). This is because it is related to a lot of other fields of study such as psychology, public administration and sociology. Besides this, I will want to learn about political science or police science as minor areas of study in college. Once I complete my college studies and attain the relevant educational requirements, I plan to join the police training academy. The purpose of joining the police academy is so as to allow me to get the necessary training that is required of each police officer (Gresham Para. 3). I plan to be part of the academy for about 14 weeks that has been put forward by the administration. Throughout the 14 weeks, I will gain information on different topics such as traffic rules, defense, conducting first aids and also responding to emergency services (Gresham Para. 3). I plan to deeply engage in the training so as to emerge among the best and as such graduate from the academy directly to the police force. Police officer cover letter entry level After completing my training program which I believe I will excel in, I will join the police force in the rank that I will be assigned. I want to work in an area that has high crime rates and drug dealing. I believe my starting salary will be $49,500 as a new officer. However, this may increase in the future since the demand for police will be high owing to the fact that crime rates and other insecurity issues are increasing. Once I have gained the necessary experience, I plan to specialize only on one sector which is narcotics. I am mostly interested in this sector because I believe that it is a major problem in our country which needs to be dealt with effectively. My success in handling this field will determine my promotion. I believe that with my passion and dedication I will quickly rise through the ranks. However, as I rise through the ranks by getting promotions, I will continue pursuing other relevant courses in the police force. This is the plan that I have in mind and which I believe that will work and get me into the police force. I will ensure that I pursue a degree course in a university that has the best police courses. I will also ensure that I can be able to further my education without any challenges once I am in the police force. The most important thing that I intend to maintain is discipline and respect for each and every person that I encounter on my way to becoming a police officer. Gresham, Tom. What Kind of Training and Education are needed to become a Cop? Demand Media 29 Sep. 2016. Web.

When Boys are Men (Boys dont cry) essays

When Boys are Men (Boys dont cry) essays Smoking cigarettes, drinking beer, speeding on the open road, yelling out curse words, and getting into fights is what a man is supposed to do and Brandon Teena is into all of that and even more. Boys Dont Cry focuses on the complicated story of Teena Brandon, a young girl whose sustained efforts to suppress her gender and decided she wanted to be a man. She cut her hair short, taped her breasts back, put a sock down the front of her pants, and switched her name around to Brandon Teena. She hides her female identity and seeks the excitement of a new love and of male bonding with new friends. She made a social transformation into a boy but punished by the intolerance of those who refuse to see beyond her body. The film touches upon the issues that concern the difference between being a lesbian and being a woman who feels she is a man. Throughout history the American culture has established roles and expectations for females and males. The film is successful in emphasizing the other ch aracters ignorance, driven hatred and use of violence as a manifestation of their sense of manhood. Brandon ironically, is just the kind of man every girl wants, sweet and sensitive but he does not fit the role that Americans know men to be. He was hugely successful with women who seemed to have little trouble buying his identity as a man probably because they didnt want to believe that there would be such a thing, in their town, as a woman trying to be a man. He repeatedly found him-self in trouble with the law due to peer pressure of trying to be a man. He was always trying to impress the girls by drinking and hanging out with the guys because that is what men are supposed to do in our culture. He felt he was doing what he was supposed to do when youre a boy. Brandon embodies the ongoing dilemma of masculine identity. But she knows what she wants, to live as a boy, fall in love with a girl, and...

Comparison Between Antony and Brutus

Comparison Between Antony and Brutus Julius Caesar is one of Shakespeare's greatest works. It is about a group of conspirators who kill their king, Julius Caesar, in order to be "free." Antony, who found no logic in the assassination, felt that he should avenge Julius's death. He delivered a speech that convinced the Romans that the murder was unjust, invoking their rebellion. Brutus, leader of the conspiracy, gave a good address, but the Romans didn't react to it as much as they did for Antony's. A battle erupted, and most of the conspirators committed suicide. The styles of the two speeches were very different from each other.Brutus was first to speak. He approached the podium with his hands dripping in Caesar's blood. Brutus began by stating his case for killing Caesar. The crowd was confused and curious as to the reason for his death. Brutus' justification was not based on a hatred of Caesar, but because he "loved Rome" (he would rather see Caesar dead than his own country).Bust of Julius Caesar from the British Mus eumSpecifically, he says, "Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more." (Act III, Scene ii, 21-22)This quote proves and summarizes the point in Brutus' speech. To achieve his goals, Brutus' oratory techniques were simple, logical, and rational. His speech was formal, controlled, and it seems that all of the sentences are perfectly balanced. Although he did a very good job at explaining to the confused crowd that murdering Caesar was for the good of Rome, he hadn't won them over completely. Brutus explained yet again that he loved Caesar, but that his assassination was for the good of Rome. "As Caesar loved me, I weep for him." (Act III, Scene ii, 25-26). Brutus explained that he still cared for Caesar and he still also claimed that Caesar...

Propose and Justify Research Method and Design Proposal

Propose and Justify Method and Design - Research Proposal Example 2. Available Research Methods There are two methods available to the researchers when it comes to developing an appropriate research design. As the design of the research work is the basic pillar of the reliability of results retrieved, it becomes of pivotal importance for researchers to carefully select a research design and methodology keeping in view the nature of the study. The two types of methodologies identified by the researcher are qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative research methods are primarily the personal interpretation of the researcher’s idea about the subject on which research work is carried out. The outcomes retrieved from qualitative researches vary mainly because each member of the sample has its own opinion and perceptions about different phenomena. The most popular characteristic of qualitative research work is that the data on which the results are tested is also descriptive and qualitative in nature. Qualitative research methods are appropriate for studies that aim at identifying prevailing trends, social practices or different phenomena. In this manner, qualitative research is more suitable for environmental studies. ... These research designs help researchers to test the reliability of the outcomes from primary research by applying statistical and mathematical formulas. The outcome of these calculations helps the researchers to monitor the reaction of sample members towards a number of questions, multiple choice questions, stimulators and case studies. The best aspect of the quantitative research method is that it allows researchers to adopt scientific approach to find the answers to research questions and validate or reject hypothesis. Another factor which makes quantitative research methods more reliable and accurate is that it depends upon the cause and effect to validate or reject the hypothesis, thus facilitating to conclude the research work efficiently. 3. Selected Research Method Considering the research problem, which is aimed to identify the impact of monetary and non-monetary motivators on employees’ motivation, the researcher has selected the quantitative research method and desig n. For this reason, the researcher has selected two companies, i.e. ABC Corporation and XYZ Associates. The reason behind selecting the quantitative research methodology is that it allows the researcher to manipulate the statistical data pertaining to employees’ perception of motivators into useful information and answer the research questions. This data contains employees’ responses to a survey questionnaire which represents employees’ degree of agreement and disagreement with particular statements. These statements measure the respondents’ idea about different motivators, and then help to rank the motivators from top to bottom, according the employees’ preference for each motivator. The research methodology adopted

Advanced Anesthetic Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Advanced Anesthetic Practice - Essay Example l of this reflection is to re-evaluate these two clinical experiences as an anaesthetic nurse and to establish that better knowledge and skills have been gained by this nurse from these experiences. The 9-year old girl, Cora (not her real name), was admitted due to pain in her lower abdomen, which started three hours prior to admission, with the pain radiating to her lower right abdomen by the time she was admitted. She also had a high-grade fever at 39.50C (103.10F) and vomited as soon as they arrived in the emergency room. Prior to the manifestation of her initial symptoms, she was running the tracks at a nearby park with her friends. In the emergency room, the attending ER internist physically assessed and examined Cora and determined that she had appendicitis and immediately recommended her for surgery. Her pain symptoms were escalating and were progressively becoming unbearable. Pain escalation, in this case, is attributed to peritoneal irritation (Craig 2014). Based on the above gathered data on the patient, I planned my next actions and decisions accordingly. I prepared the essential equipment appropriate for physiology of the child, specifically a T-piece Mapleson E valveless breathing system (Ramamani, Mohanty, and Suman Gupta 2008). This is a breathing system which supports spontaneous as well as controlled breathing. This system is attached to a 0.5 litre double-ended bag, providing the least resistance during expiration (Ramamani, Mohanty, and Suman Gupta 2008). I opted for an adjustable pressure limiting (APL) valve including a closed-ended bag or the Ayre’s T-piece to manage scavenging (Gregory and Andropoulos 2012). A paediatric circle breathing system was also set (Gregory and Andropoulos 2012). Dead space refers to the amount of alveolar gas breathed in, and the volume of such space is decreased through an infant paediatric mask used with an appropriate filter and port (Goonasekera, Goodwin, and Wang 2014. Goonasekera and colleagues (2014),

Geography - Economic Growth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Geography - Economic Growth - Essay Example According to them, there are two types of the developing world -- one who has globalized their trade and the one who has not. The globalized group of countries has increased their foreign investment and trade well above the rates of rich countries and opposite is the case with non-globalized group of countries (121) Authors believe that globalization has not caused any higher inequality within economies though they also agree that inequality has gone up in China but it has nothing to do with any free trade and investment flows. They attribute it to education, social policies and taxation. What they want to emphasize is that higher economic growth rates translate higher incomes for the poor. For example, in China inequality has increased but at the same time poverty reduction has taken place and that is entirely because of foreign trade and investment. Authors suggest that growing protectionist movement in rich countries does not augur well if full potential of economic integration an d its benefits are to be realized; however, at the same time, developing countries need to change their policies and build up institutions so that they can prosper under globalization (121). Authors argue that further integration is being opposed in the rich countries and their protectionist measures are directed toward agriculture and labor-intensive products (131). Authors argue that human productivity has increased manifold. The world economy, which was crawling at the rate of 1 percent during mid-nineteenth century accelerated to 3.5 percent during1960-2000 because of economic integration among several countries. Authors put forward the argument that worldwide income inequality was on rise until 1970 but thereafter it started reducing. The income inequality in 1970 was at its highest level at 88.1% that subsequently reduced to 77.7 percent in year 1995. According to authors, after 1980 the number of poor has reduced by 200 million. This has been possible due to accelerated growt h rate of China and India (125). Authors advocate migration from poor countries to reduce the poverty and currently that is highly restricted by rich countries because of the fear of high unemployment rate in those countries. Authors strongly argue that the fate of poor also hangs on the rich countries' migration policy decisions (133). Growth with Equity is Good for the Poor Oxfam (2000) argues that 'growth with equity' is a solution to poverty eradication and not growth proposed by Dollar and Kraay. According to Oxfam, growth alone cannot help in reducing poverty. Oxfam advocates poverty-focused growth that reaches to the lowest 20% of the population to bring them up in line with others. They consider Dollar and Kraay's growth model as anti-poor and anti-growth (2). The important thing, according to Oxfam, is how income is distributed among poor. The larger share of income growth should go to poor if poverty is to be reduced. Comparing different regions on economic growth, Oxfam a sserts that East Asia is the only region, which can achieve its goal of poverty eradication by 2015. Due to poverty-focused growth in East Asia, it has raised 22 million people out of poverty, which other region such as Latin America has not been able to do so. At least 3 million people in Latin America would have been out of poverty had it initiated a focused growth (4). Oxfam argues that growth alone is not sufficient to reduce poverty. Oxfam emphasizes that the income distribution is

Personal Perspectives of Death and Dying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Personal Perspectives of Death and Dying - Essay Example She has even ready to celebrate his death and sold the exclusive rights of capturing her final moments to some media. â€Å"Death begins when the heart stops beating. Deprived of oxygen, a cascade of cellular death commences, beginning with brain cells and ending with skin cells. Death is a process rather than an event. Specifying the moment of death usually involves deciding on a point from which there can be no return.† (What is Death?) Most of the children may not think much about death since childhood is filled with many other activities. The confusing things about death life may not influence them much during that stage. But the religious learning centers such as Sunday school and church related activities may sometimes force them to think in terms of death also. Moreover they may get lot of information about life and death through the literatures they might have read during their childhood. The parents may not talk much about death since the children may ask confusing questions regarding the death which may not be easy for them to answer. But it is necessary for the parents to talk about death if the child asks anything about it to know his interpretations about death. If his interpretations are misleading, then the parents must try to clear his confusions about death. The thought about death was an irritating thing for me even from my childhood. After grown up, I often tried to analyze the meaning of life personally. The science topics which I learned during my studies were not convincing enough to clear my doubts about life and death. I tried to compare the scientific knowledge about death with my religion’s interpretation of death. Though scientifically not proved, I confirmed that religious beliefs cannot be written off. Science often gives us information about material things. Though science was successful in providing us much knowledge about the non material things energy and forces which exists on

The Presence of Racism is Shakespeare's Othello Essay

The Presence of Racism is Shakespeare's Othello - Essay Example Therefore, after the Reformation, it represented an antagonistic political and religious force against Protestantism in England. At that time, Italy was the site of classical Roman history and civilization which paved the way for the "Renaissance" of European culture from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. (Nostbakken, 2000) Differences matter. Othello was not a Venetian by birth and therefore his status is ambivalent: he both belongs and does not belong to the city of Venice. He belongs because he is Venice's military general whose main role was to defend the city from possible invaders, and he is a Christian who shared a common religion with his fellow Venetian citizens. However, he is also a real stranger from a strange country, a foreigner and an outsider. The play manifests the inherent tension which exists between the differences that set him apart and the qualities that allow him to play a respected and vital role in the city's day-to-day life. Cassio, another key character of this play, is an outsider but he is less of a stranger compared to Othello for he is a European gentleman. Cassio comes from the beautiful Italian city of Florence. Othello, in contrast comes from the unknown and misunderstood world of Africa. (Nostbakken, 2000) The courtesans of Venice were prostitutes serving an upper-c... In this play, Shakespeare presents the strong positive and negative impact of identity by exploiting many degrees of difference between various characters of the play as distinguished by their rank and status, and by their places of origin, adoption, or conquest. Shakespeare wrote this play for English audiences in the early seventeenth century and this play reflected and responded to problems, situations, and problems of the period. Hence, the play showed identities defined by differences as well as similarities. In a sense, the responses of English audiences were also influenced by their own sense of identity as a nation.Iago's character speaks for the corruption and intrigue in Venice. In the first scene, he implies the practice of political prejudice, as opposed to impartiality, by explaining that friendship gained Cassio the title of lieutenancy while Iago's attempts had failed. Iago acts as a model of self-interest rather than duty. Iago's advice to Roderigo to "put money in th y purse" exemplified the naked greed that foreigners identified with Venice's highly prosperous merchant economy. Iago is inherently revengeful, scheming, and manipulative. His dominance in the play mirrors the dark side of humanity and also the dark side of Venice. Iago is a true native of Venice and he belongs there in a way that Othello, the outsider, does not. (Nostbakken, 2000) Venetian women were perceived to be very deceptive. Desdemona was shown as a "super-subtle Venetian" and suspects practically every man and woman as being unfaithful, adulterous, or promiscuous. However, Desdemona does not fit the Venetian stereotype of infidelity and deception. She was a faithful woman.

Personal Perspectives of Death and Dying Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Personal Perspectives of Death and Dying - Essay Example She has even ready to celebrate his death and sold the exclusive rights of capturing her final moments to some media. â€Å"Death begins when the heart stops beating. Deprived of oxygen, a cascade of cellular death commences, beginning with brain cells and ending with skin cells. Death is a process rather than an event. Specifying the moment of death usually involves deciding on a point from which there can be no return.† (What is Death?) Most of the children may not think much about death since childhood is filled with many other activities. The confusing things about death life may not influence them much during that stage. But the religious learning centers such as Sunday school and church related activities may sometimes force them to think in terms of death also. Moreover they may get lot of information about life and death through the literatures they might have read during their childhood. The parents may not talk much about death since the children may ask confusing questions regarding the death which may not be easy for them to answer. But it is necessary for the parents to talk about death if the child asks anything about it to know his interpretations about death. If his interpretations are misleading, then the parents must try to clear his confusions about death. The thought about death was an irritating thing for me even from my childhood. After grown up, I often tried to analyze the meaning of life personally. The science topics which I learned during my studies were not convincing enough to clear my doubts about life and death. I tried to compare the scientific knowledge about death with my religion’s interpretation of death. Though scientifically not proved, I confirmed that religious beliefs cannot be written off. Science often gives us information about material things. Though science was successful in providing us much knowledge about the non material things energy and forces which exists on

Assessment Tool Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Assessment Tool - Essay Example This paper will concentrate on the communication aspect. Positive result of communication contributes a lot such as increased recovery rates, a sense of safety and protection, better patient satisfaction. The communication may include comprehensible pronunciation, listening skills, non-verbal communication and usage of professional as well as local language. Cultural awareness also is an inevitable part of communication. Assessment Tool Purpose Simulations can be used to assess the communication skills of the nursing students. In simulations, particular set of conditions are created artificially for studying or experiencing something that could exist in reality. The simulations can be created by the clinical faculty without harming the patient. Here the patients will be able to give their feedback both physiologically and interactively. The members of the family also cooperate in this assessment. This keeps away miscommunication that might cause risks on patients. It can be a cheerfu lly constructed clinical setting where there is an interpersonal relationship among the patient , relative, peer etc. The faculty also may include recording in the process to keenly observe the flaws. Creating such simulation including different people can enhance the communication skills. As Wright (2012) opines, the students can work in various teams setting like labor and delivery, operating room, and running a code, that give good chances to assess and enhance students communication skills and behaviors in different situations. Nonverbal communication is of great importance that this is critically important to receivers. For instance, a simulation to take patients’ vital signs can certainly yield data about the students’ skills to get the numerical measures and use of blood pressure cuff and stethoscope. The simulation can help to recognize four factors to check the non verbal communication of the students. They are smiling when greeting the patients, offering shak e hands, keeping an eye contact while communicating and lastly speaking clearly and loudly. As Pagano and Greiner (2012) point out, the simulation help both the faculty and the students to identify the necessity of interpersonal skills of building relationships that the nurse needs to educate and console the patients along with the data. As explained above, by using the simulations, the verbal communication also can be easily assessed. Here the faculty can evaluate how students behave in different situations and their language. For example, when a nurse is asked to talk to patient about his health problems, the nurse will be assessed by her ability to choose words and phrases for her language considering the patients health literacy level. Faculty using an emotional environment of the patient can assess the nursing student’s capacity to handle such emotional contexts. And there is also a possibility that the nursing students try to be professionals, keep an appropriate nursin g language that sometimes makes them forget the changes in contexts. And sometimes they may have to take even an authoritative role according to the contexts. The important relation between context and communication also is well understood by simulations. Through simulations, the faculties can also assess the listening skills of students such as focusing on what

Trace the changes and developments Essay Example for Free

Trace the changes and developments Essay This is a character study on a character from the play Hobsons Choice by Harold Brighouse. The character I am going to study is Hobsons principal bookmaker, Willie Mossop. The story of Hobsons choice is about Hobsons single mindedness, which is shown in the way he attempts to live his life, run his household, and to rule his daughters. It is seen In the eldest daughter Maggies dominance and the grooming of Will and not least in her finally, at the age of 30 standing up to her own father. The other two daughters Alice and Vickey also inherit this characteristic. What sets Maggie apart from the rest of her family is that she uses this quality not only for her benefit of others, not least though he is initially unconvinced, Willie Mossop. Thos play is also the story of the transformation of Willie. Willie was a working class man who worked in Henry Hobsons boot shop, he had little future until Maggie Hobson spotted talent and developed him into a successful man. When Willie is first seen in Act 1 page 9 he is described as a  Lanky fellow, about thirty, not naturally stupid but stunted mentally by a brutalised childhood. He is a raw material of a charming man but at present, it requires a very keen eye to detect his potentialities  One thing I notice about Willie is that he is an extremely shy and nervous man as Mrs Hepworth a member of the Upper class says  Take that  Willie in worry bends over rather expecting That to be a blow. Then he raises his head to find she is holding out a visiting card with her address apon it. As Willie tries to read what is written apon the card he finds he cant, his excuse is that the print is funny as he tries to hide his embarrassment. As Mrs Hepworth carries on talking Hobson thinks Willie has done something wrong and says. I assure it will never happen again  By this you can see Hobson doesnt have any faith in Willie. The thing is because, Mrs Hepworth has searched everywhere in Manchester for a pair of boots and there havent been any ones see has liked these are the best she has found. Therefor Mrs Hepworth asks Willie to let her know whether he ever moves shop, as she wants him to make her shoes for her  When the play begins nothing is said of Willie and no one talks of him until Mrs Hepworth spots a great talent in him. No one can really see Willies potential apart from Maggie, who can see beneath the surface of Will. Willie gets his first taste of praise when Mrs Hepworth demands to see him to congratulate him on his ability to make boots,  Ive tries every shop in Manchester, and these are the best made pair of boots Ive had. Now youll make my boots in future. This is not much to Willie, as he does not really take it in he just wants to disappear down the cellar where he can hide away from the company of other people.  Willie is very shy and has no confidence at all and he has no idea of his future, apart from work by himself quietly! When Will is approached by Maggie he is very scared of her and wants to go away from her. He wants no business with her at all because he is not good at communicating, he gets embarrassed easily and hates attention.  Other people just ignore Willie, to them he is just the young man that was employed to make the boots for Hobsons boot shop. Hobson thinks very little of him and underpays him as one part says:  Mrs H: The mans a treasure and I expect you underpay him. Hobson: Thatll do Willie. You can go.  Mr Hobson immediately dismisses him, as he knows that he does underpay him, and wants to change the subject, this shows how little Mr Hobson thinks of Willie.  The sisters also dont think much of Willie, and they go for the upper class rich people. When Maggie tells them that she intends to marry Will they are very shocked.  Alice: Youre going to marry Willie Mossop! Willie Mossop!  They are very shocked because Willie is a working class man and they are considered to be posh also they believe that if Willie is in the Family then no one else will want to marry them as they wont want Will as a brother in law. Maggie is in charge of the shop and she can see that Will is a very hard worker who deserves more in life.  Do you know what keeps this business on its legs? Two things: ones the good boots that sell themselves, the other is the bad boots other people make and I sell.  Maggie knows that this is how the shop works and without Will they would be nothing. She knows that he can get more out of life so she tries to make him marry her but he wont because he has been forced to marry someone else. This shows that he is pushed around and cant stick up for himself.  Will is almost pushed around with Maggie, as he has no confidence. Will is afraid to try to do well and he has no career plans for the future as he is too shy to try, he says  Nay, Id be feared to go in them fine places.

Bilingualism and Brain Lateralization

Bilingualism and Brain Lateralization Polina Gavrilova Brain Lateralization and Neural Networks in Bilinguals In recent years, various studies have been conducted on bilingualism in regard to the neural basis of the first language (L1) and second language (L2) processing. The new technical advances, such as position emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are used to determine whether L1 and L2 share a common neural network or whether languages are represented in different areas of the brain (Dehaene et al., 1997; Perani et al., 1998; Liu, Hu, and Peng, 2010). Studies in neuropsychology have shown that for most people language processing takes place in the perisylvian areas of the left hemisphere. Research on bilinguals and polyglots who suffered brain injury revealed that occasionally aphasia affects only one of the languages that were previously acquired. This finding suggests that languages are represented in different parts of the brain (Paradis, 1995, cited in Perani et al., 1998) and that L2 has reduced leftward lateralization (Albert Obler, 1978, ci ted in Dehaene et al., 1997). Various studies that examined bilinguals and their language processing have shown that L2 in comparison to L1 doesn’t consistently activate the same neural networks across subjects. The inconsistency between participants could be attributed to the age of acquisition and proficiency level of L2 (Dehaene et al., 1997; Perani et al., 1998; Liu, Hu, and Peng, 2010). This paper examines whether L1 and L2 are supported by a common neural system or whether a dedicated cortical area represents each language. Furthermore, this paper identifies neural substrates activated by L1 and L2 during auditory, word production, and picture naming tasks. Dehaene et al. (1997) examined bilinguals (French-English) who acquired L2 after the age of seven. The researchers found that while listening to a task the superior temporal sulcus (STS), superior and middle temporal guri (STG and MTG), temporal pole (TP), and left angular gyrus (AG) were constantly activated in the left hemisphere for L1. STS and TP were also activated in the right hemisphere but it varied across subjects and the activation wasn’t as strong as in the left hemisphere. In addition, the neural pathway didn’t extend to AG. The findings for L2 showed greater inter-subject variability than for L1. The results of fMRI found that six subjects activated STS, STG, and MTG in the left temporal lobe for L2. However, the pixels of these activations were dispersed compared to the results for L1. The second language didn’t cause any activation in the left TP and AG. Also, some of the subjects didn’t show any neural activation in the left temporal region , which suggests that L2 is mostly dominated by their right hemisphere. The results also displayed that subjects activated additional resources while listening to L2. These additional sub-regions were the right STG and STS in the right temporal lobe. In addition, results of L2 showed that some subjects activated various networks outside the temporal lobe. Specifically, these subjects used the left inferior frontal gyrus, located in the Broca’s area, the inferior precentral sulcus, and the anterior cingulate. The research shows that L1 consistently activated the temporal lobe, especially stimulating the STS, STG, and MTG in the left hemisphere. Some subjects also activated these cerebral regions for L2 but with greater dispersion. Participants had strong leftward lateralization for L1 and inconsistent lateralization patterns for L2 across subjects. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that L1 is represented in the left hemisphere for most people. Furthermore, the study suggests that late bilinguals require additional neural networks for L2. Therefore, some subjects recruited left inferior frontal gyrus, which is responsible for language production to help maintain L2 while processing it during tasks. The anterior cingulate was another additional resource, which is responsible for attention and control. This suggests that L2 is not as autonomic as L1 and subjects needed more resources and attention to process L2 (Pardo et al., 1990; Posner Dehaene, 1994; Paulesu, Frith, Frack owiak, 1993, cited in Dehaene et al., 1997). Perani et al. (1998) studied cortical responses by evaluating bilinguals with high proficiency, late acquisition (HPLA) and high proficiency, early acquisitions (HPEA) and comparing their results with low proficiency, late acquisition (LPLA) study (Perani et al., 1996). Similar to previous studies, L1 of the LPLA bilinguals activated the left hemisphere, including perisylvian areas and temporal lobes and L2 activated different networks across subjects (Perani et al., 1996; Dehaene et al., 1997, cited in Perani et al., 1998). On the other hand, the results demonstrated that balanced bilinguals, HPLA and HPEA, activated similar networks while listening to stories in their native and acquired languages. HPLA subjects activated left hemisphere in the temporal pole, the STS, MTG and hippocampal structures for L1, which is consistent with previous results. However, L2 activated similar neural pathways, which suggests that when L2 is acquired to a high proficiency the speakers activate the same areas of the brain for both languages. HPEA subjects activated temporal poles, hippocampal structures and lingual gyrus for both, L1 and L2, which is similar to the results of HPLA speakers. These results show that once the proficiency level of L2 increase, the speakers recruit less networks to maintain L2 and the activation foci between languages doesn’t vary as it does with unbalanced bilinguals (e.g., LPLA). Furthermore, the results showed that the temporal lobes were consistently activated during tasks. Previous studies showed that the temporal poles get activated during tasks that require listening, reading, or speaking (Mazoyer et al., 1993; Perani et al., 1996, cited in Perani et al., 1998). Therefore, the authors suggest that the temporal poles are responsible for processing at the sentence level rather than unconnected word level. In another study, Liu, Hu, and Peng (2010) examined Chinese-English bilinguals using word production and picture naming tasks. The results showed that there was increased activation for L2 in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), bilateral supplementary motor area (SMA), left precentral gyrus, Brodman’s area (BA) and bilateral basal ganglia, including the putamen, globys pallidus, and caudate, and bilateral cerebella.The bilateral SMA, left precentral gurys, and the cerebella functions are related to motor processing for word production; therefore, activation in these regions might be related to phonological and articulatory processing in language production. The researchers also found that L2 activated Brodman’s area of BA44/45/48; the BA44 and BA 45 are known are Broca’s area, which is responsible for motor planning and articulation, as well as phonological processing. Activations in these areas suggest that L2 is less autonomic and requires more neural pathwa ys to maintain and control language production for L2 (Braun et al., 2001, cited in Liu, Hu, and Peng, 2010). L2 also activated regions of basal ganglia, which is related to motor behavior and cognition functions (Graybiel, 2000) and regulates planning and execution of actions, and speech motor control. The activations in these areas could be attributed to the fact that unbalanced bilinguals try to reduce interference from a more dominant L1 (Elsinger et al., 2006; Alm, 2004, cited in Liu, Hu, and Peng, 2010). Interestingly, the authors found that L1 activated the right putamen and right globus pallidus of the right basal ganglia. The dissociation between L1 and L2, which activated the left basal ganglia, suggests that different regions of basal ganglia are responsible for different levels of speech execution( Jueptner and Weiller, 1998, cited in the study). The difference between activation of basal ganglia could also be attributed to the fact that Chinese and English use different phonological systems and language scripts, which might activate different parts of basal ganglia (Liu et al., 2006, cited in Liu, Hu, and Peng, 2010). The results also showed overlapping between neural pathways for L1 and L2. Both languages activated the left IFG, which is associated with semantics and phonology, posterior perisylvian area which is responsible for linguistic functions and the cingulate gyrus for cognition and motor control. The literature review and the present studies concur that L1 has a consistent neural pathway within the left hemisphere and L2 has a more varied cerebral activation patterns. The differences between L1 and L2 are being attributed to the language proficiency of L2 Dehaene et al., 1997; Perani et al., 1998; Liu, Hu, and Peng, 2010). Nonetheless, L1 and L2 also activate common neural system, which differed from one study to another due to the tasks, languages involved, and the level of L2 acquisition. The results of the studies suggest that L2 is less autonomic than L1 and requires more resources to maintain the L2, however as the proficiency of L2 increases the need to activate varied neural pathways decreases, as L2 becomes competent to L1. It’s important to study about the way languages are represented in peoples’ brain as these studies will contribute to our understanding of brain plasticity, language acquisition and neurological diseases, such as aphasia in bilinguals . Also, new studies using advanced technologies will help to clarify agreed upon hypothesis of language lateralization and representation in the human brain. References Dehaene, S., Dupoux E., Mehler, J., Cohen, L., Paulesu, E., Perani, D., et al. (1997). Anatomical variability in the cortical representation of first and second language. Neuroreport, 8, 3809–15. Liu, H., Hu, Z., Guo, T., Peng, D. (2010). Speaking words in two languages with one brain: neural overlap and dissociation. Brain Research, 1316, 75-82. Perani, D., Paulesu, E., Galles, N.S., Dupoux E, Dehaene S, Bettinardi V, et al.(1998). The bilingual brain: proficiency and age of acquisition of the second language. Brain, 121, 1841–52.

reincarnation :: essays research papers

The reincarnation system (tulku), a distinguishing characteristic of Tibetan Buddhism, is based the theory that Buddha's soul never vanishes, but reincarnates in succession to lead his followers and to accomplish his mission. One of first reincarnations among the Buddhist monks in Tibet is Karma Pakshi. In 1193, before Dusum Chenpa, a religious leader, the first Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, passed away, he told his disciples that he would return as a reincarnated being. His disciples soon led a search for his infant reincarnation in accordance with his will. Several years later, Karma Pakshi turned out as the first reincarnation in Tibet and trained to be Karma Kagyu leader. After Karma Pakshi's reincarnation, the reincarnation system was adopted by other sects gradually to keep a consistent religious leadership. By applying the system, heirs for hundreds of Gyalwas (Living Buddhas) were selected, among whom the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama are the mo st prestigious. The Yellow Hat sect, Gelugpa tradition of Tibetan Buddhism also applied the system to hand down the titles conferred on the third Dalai Lama and the fourth Panchen Lama to keep their established religious and secular title and power. By the end of the Qing Dynasty there were 160 high lamas registered with the Board for Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs, each applying the reincarnation system to identify their next successors. Religious methods and rituals are used to identify a reincarnation of a late high lama. A search party headed by another high lama begins the search. After a religious retreat, lamas, dispatched in disguise, scour Tibet for special signs: new mothers who had unusual dreams, children who have special knowledge without being taught, and special physical traits, such as big ear lobes. The lamas refer to oracles, portents, dreams and the late lama's prophesy in order to aid them in their search. Some lamas are sent to Lhamo Latso, the Oracle Lake, to look for prophetic visions to help locate the reincarnation. Usually, dozens of candidates are sought. They will be tested with the late lama's possessions; those who have amazing knowledge in identifying their predecessor's belongings win and become the final candidates.

History of Stonehenge Essay -- Architecture Historical Essays

History of Stonehenge On May 20, 1996, TIME magazine contained an advertisement for the Mita DC-8090 copying machine. It included a vivid image of a very recognizable work of art, Stonehenge. TIME magazine is a weekly news magazine and its readers are educated and interested in current events, politics, business, science, and the arts. The text of the advertisement states, "The new Mita DC-8090 has the technology to manage complicated copying jobs from start to finish-it's fully automatic. Sunsets should be watched, not copiers." The advertisement utilizes the beautiful image as a setting to make the product look attractive and the text to suggest that the copier will save time and effort. It also assumes that the reader will associate Stonehenge with the sun and sunsets using common knowledge about this famous structure. Stonehenge is located on the Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England. It is a megalithic monument built during the Neolithic Period, approximately between 2750 and 1500 B.C..(Stokstad, p.54-55) The builders of this magnificent monument remain unknown although it was once incorrectly thought to have been built by the Druids.(Balfour) Stonehenge was built in several different phases beginning with the large white circle, 330 feet in diameter, surrounded by an eight foot-high embankment and a ring of fifty-six pits now referred to as the Aubrey Holes.(Stokstad, p.53; Hoyle) In a subsequent building phase, thirty huge pillars of stone were erected and capped by stone lintels in the central Sarsen Circle, which is 106 feet in diameter.(Stokstad, p.54) This circle is so named because the stone of which the pillars and lintels were made was sarsen. Within the Sarsen Circle were an incomplete ring and a horsesho... ...he advertisers assumed that the readers of TIME magazine had seen the site before and knew something about its history. This is a fairly safe assumption since the readers of TIME would probably have had some exposure to this very famous work of art. The readers may not have known specific details about the original but, as with most art from the past that is reproduced in the present, the work is associated with certain well-known facts. Works Cited: Balfour, Michael Stonehenge and Its Mysteries New York 1979 Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia (Computer Program) Hoyle, Fred From Stonehenge to Modern Cosmology San Francisco 1972 On Stonehenge San Francisco 1977 Humbert, Jean-Marcel Pantazzi, Michael Ziegler, Christiane Egyptomania Paris 1994 Stokstad, Marilyn Art History, Volume 1 New York 1995 Wainwright, Geoffrey The Henge Monuments London 1989

Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards:

Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards: Motivational Theory Revisited labr_496 1.. 23 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Abstract. A model of job satisfaction integrating economic and work environment variables was developed and used for testing interactions between rewards and work environment hazards. Data came from a representative panel of Danish employees. Results showed that psychosocial work environment factors, like information about decisions concerning the work place, social support, and in? uence, have signi? cant impacts on the level of job satisfaction.Maximizing rewards did not compensate public employees to an extent that ameliorated the negative effects on job satisfaction of experiencing low levels of any of these factors whereas in? uence did not impact job satisfaction of private employees. 1. Introduction Although job satisfaction is not considered an economic variable in itself, several studies in a labour economic context have highlighted that low job satisf action is a determinant of resignations from the work place; see Akerlof et al. (1988), Blank and Diderichsen (1995), Clark et al. 1998), and Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). Other studies have shown an impact from job satisfaction on phenomena that are more dif? cult to observe directly, such as intention to leave the work place (Bockerman and Ilmakunnas, 2005), motivation and absenteeism (Keller, 1983; Tharenou, 1993), and counterproductive behaviour (Gottfredson and Holland, 1990). Work environment has been found to in? uence labour market outcomes in terms of early retirement (see Lund and Villadsen, 2005), employee long-term absence from work due to illness (see Benavides et al. 2001; Hemmingway et al. , 1997; Lund et al. , 2005), short-term sickness absence (see Munch-Hansen et al. , 2009), and productivity (see Cooper et al. , 1996). Within traditional economic theory, work environment factors have tended to be modelled as job attributes, seen as hazards at work for which compensating wage differentials are to be paid. The theory of compensating wage differentials goes as far back as Adam Smith’s book, Wealth of Nations, from 1776, where equalizing wage differentials adjust the net advantages of different jobs.This makes it possible to achieve general labour market equilibrium when work places, preferences, and technologies are heterogeneous. Rosen (1986) reviews the various studies on the area and ? nds evidence of compensating wage differentials especially for physical working conditions, like shift work, heavy, dirty, or dangerous work. Other studies ? nd no evidence of compensating wages differentials (see Ehrenberg and Smith, 1994) or, in cases where workers do receive compensating wages differences, that the compensation does not re? ct their true preferences (see Lanfranchi, 2002). Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal (author for correspondence), The National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lerso Parkalle 105, 2100 Copenhag en, Denmark. E-mail: [email  protected] dk. LABOUR 25 (1) 1–23 (2011) DOI: 10. 1111/j. 1467-9914. 2010. 00496. x JEL J6, J28, J30, J31, J45, J81  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Rd. , Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St. , Malden, MA 02148, USA. 2 Lea Sell — Bryan ClealAccording to the theory of compensating wages differentials, the equalization of total compensation is dependent on both perfect mobility of workers and perfect information for workers and ? rms. Both assumptions are questionable. Mobility may be, at least temporarily, limited by factors such as a high unemployment rate or family ties, restricting job choice to a speci? c mix of working hours, pay, or location. Likewise, full information regarding working conditions, especially when drawing in psychosocial work factors, cannot be known in advance, but will be experienced only in the actual work situation.Under these circumstances adverse working conditions can have an impact on the level of job satisfaction even if high wages are paid. The purpose of the present paper is to identify determinants of job satisfaction in a model that contains detailed information on both work environment and economic factors. Moreover, we wish to test if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in which there are no compensatory rewards.The results from the ? rst analysis are of interest because most previous studies on job satisfaction either do not include all economic variables of interest, and are cross-sectional studies not accounting for unobserved heterogeneity, or include only few work environment factors. The second analysis can supplement the theory of compensating wages differentials by introducing more detailed work environment measures and by testing the capability of rewards to compensate workers for hazards in the work environment to an extent that ameliorates the effects on job satisfaction.The work environment factors considered are all evidence-based health risks factors, thereby both long-term effects on work ability and health and short-term effects on employee satisfaction and motivation are considered. The data used in this study are a panel of a representative cohort of Danish employees at two points in time, 1995 and 2000. The data set consists of individual assessments of working conditions and socio-economic data for 3,412 employees (when omitting observations with missing response on any of the items analysed here). The data were collected by the National Institute of Occupational Health in Denmark. . Theoretical background Job satisfaction is not an absolute measure but merely an indicator for a range of job characteristics. Using Locke’s (1976) de? nition, job satisfaction is a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of oneâ€℠¢s job and it is worth recalling here that such subjective data are generally viewed with suspicion by economists. Freeman (1978) states that the principal problem in interpreting responses to such questions is that they depend not only on the objective circumstances in which an individual is situated, but also on one’s psychological state.Moreover, the level of job satisfaction may also be in? uenced by ability thus representing unobservable, stable characteristics of individuals. Earlier studies within organizational psychology have shown that the level of job satisfaction varies very little over time, suggesting that it does re? ect underlying stable personal dispositions (see Schneider and Dachler, 1978). This has been tested on a cohort of German employees by Dormann and Zapf (2001) in a review on the studies on the alleged stability of job satisfaction.The result was that after controlling for stable working conditions, the stability of job satisfaction diminishes to no nsigni? cance, indicating that an underlying dispositional in? uence on job satisfaction is not direct, but mediated by working conditions. This also suggests that the level of job satisfaction can be changed by organizational measures.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 3 A general and well-known model of job satisfaction was developed by Herzberg (see Herzberg et al. 1959). He found that some job factors could only cause dissatisfaction or short-lasting motivation whereas other factors could invoke long-lasting positive feelings towards the job. If job factors are in fact dual with regard to their effect on job satisfaction, the method used for examining job satisfaction should account for this. If only testing for positive or negative associations between the covariates and job satisfaction, information on the factors being only capable of causing either high job satisfaction or low job satisfa ction would most likely be lost.As for the effects of compensatory rewards, this may be essential and consequently separate analyses are undertaken here for the outcome being highly satis? ed with the job and the outcome being dissatis? ed with the job. Many of the earlier studies on job satisfaction have made an analytical distinction between the two genders as there consistently has been reported higher job satisfaction for women; see, for example, Sloane and Williams (2000) and Clark (1997). Where Sloane and Williams ? nd that the differences stem from men and women having different types of work, Clark ? ds that neither different jobs, their different work values, nor sample selection accounts for the gender satisfaction differential. Rather he proposes an explanation based on well-being relative to expectations. A man and a woman with the same jobs and levels of expectations would report identical levels of job satisfaction. But as women’s expectations are lower than men ’s due to having been more attached to work in the home, they will report higher job satisfaction than their male counterparts even given the same working conditions. This hypothesis is supported by the ? ding that the gender satisfaction differential disappears for the young, the higher educated, professionals and those in male-dominated work places. This can be related to the length of time women have had an established position at the labour market, an issue that has been further exploited in a paper by Kaiser (2005). Here Denmark, Finland, and the Netherlands are the only European countries that do not show signi? cant gender–job satisfaction differences. They argue that the gender–job satisfaction paradox fades out in the process of ‘modernizations’ of the labour market.This modernization is facilitated if the welfare state as in Scandinavia and, to a certain extent, the Netherlands supports equal opportunities for women and men by means of, fo r example, kindergartens and homes for the elderly people. A more recent topic within this line of economic literature is based on the theory that the public sector is likely to attract individuals with high intrinsic motivation to care about the recipients of public service or those who thrive on the social recognition they might receive for contributing to an important mission (Benabou and Tirole, 2006).And although the picture is not fully conclusive, studies have in fact shown that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards than employees within the private sector. They are prepared to work for a lower overall pay level than is the case for private-sector employees because they derive satisfaction from participating in the production of a good of high social value; see, for example, Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000). Ren (2010) points to that value congruence or organization and employees can strengthen the intrinsic motivation. He also investigates whether value congruence can impact the design of the organization and ? nds that value congruence is related to employee participation in decision making and autonomy as opposed to control. Apart from the above discussed differences in the incentive structures in the public and the private sector, there is also a difference in the gender distribution within the two sectors as women tend to be over-represented in the public as well as the non-pro? t sector. Narcy et al. 2008) investigates possible explanations for this and ? nds that the ‘feminization’ of the public sector can be explained by the fact that women obtain a higher wage gain from choosing this sector than men do, investigating, among other factors, the social objectives pursued by the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 4 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal public sector. Also ? exible working hours have seemed to attract women. The result in regard to wages was found for Greek data in Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007). In Denmark 63. per cent of the employees in the public sector are women whereas this ? gure for the private sector is only 35. 1 per cent (OECD, 1997). According to the previous discussion, a meaningful analytical distinction when studying job satisfaction is between the private and the public sector. Newer studies that have applied this distinction with good results are, for example, Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007) and Ghinetti (2007). They use Greek and Italian data, respectively, and the measures are on so-called ‘domain satisfactions’ representing different facets of the job, instead of a universal measure.Ghinetti examines differences in satisfaction between the private and the public sector in regard to six non-pecuniary job attributes. He ? nds that public and private employees are equally satis? ed on three of the items, that the publicly employed are more satis? ed on two items, and one item with mixed results. Using a division on sector, gender differences can be tested by means of interactions effects. In the present paper, we use a division on sector in combination with tests of gender interaction effects. An often discussed topic in relation to job satisfaction is wage.The general assumption is that higher wage increases job satisfaction, not necessarily because it actually makes you happier in the job, but because a higher wage increases overall utility by increasing total expenditure opportunities. Many studies apply a general job satisfaction measure, which makes it dif? cult to distinguish the two effects. Furthermore, not only absolute, but also relative wage is considered to be positively correlated to the level of job satisfaction. This is when using the wages of other workers having the same characteristics and type of job for comparison; see, for example, Clark (1996).In the present paper, wage is used as one type of reward along wi th recognition and future opportunities at the job. In order not to confuse the relationships between the three types of rewards, we use the absolute wage in the present analyses as opposed to relative wages. The job satisfaction measure applied is a general measure of job satisfaction. Other determinants of job satisfaction often applied in analyses performed within labour economic theory and thus also used in our analyses include education, job tenure, managerial position, the unemployment rate, and marital status and number of children.Tenure and having a leading position have nearly always been found to be positively related to job satisfaction (Clark, 1997). The relationships between job satisfaction, level of education, the unemployment rate, and wages are intertwined and convoluted. Education raises wages and thus job satisfaction. But education also raises expectations with respect to job content and thus the likelihood of experiencing job dissatisfaction. In addition, there is more opportunity for mobility between jobs in the low-wage job market due to fewer matching criteria for taking a job, increasing the likelihood of job satisfaction.Finally, a lower unemployment rate can raise job satisfaction through improved mobility (see Akerlof et al. , 1988). Where possible we use the unemployment rate within speci? c professions (60 per cent in the current sample), otherwise the average unemployment rate is used. Hours of work have been considered as a measure of the disutility of work whereas utility is increasing with increased leisure time. In Denmark, as well as in many other countries, working hours have to a great extent become a non-divisible good as a result of regulation.Moreover, long working hours can be evident both for workers having a very challenging job and for workers just having too much work, as shown by Kristensen et al. (2004). As a result we decided not to use the absolute number of working hours in our analyses and included ? exibili ty of working hours instead. Although work environment has been used extensively in earlier job satisfaction studies, the present article restricts its focus to factors where there is evidence of negative health outcomes.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing LtdJob Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 5 A widely used theory within psychosocial work environment research is the demand– control model, elaborated by Karasek (see Karasek and Theorell, 1990). Job demands encompass quantitative job demands, time pressure, and con? icting job demands whereas decision latitude in contrast is a measure of control and composed of level of job discretion and the degree of in? uence. Workers exposed to high demands and low control have an increased risk for a number of diseases, notably cardiovascular diseases.High job demands in association with low control have also been associated with diseases such as musculoskeletal disorders, psychiatric illne ss, gastrointestinal illness, cancer, suicide, sleeping problems, and diabetes (see Kristensen, 1996). Later studies (e. g. Johnson and Hall, 1988) have shown that a high level of social support can counteract the negative effects of high job strain. A more recent theory is the effort–reward imbalance model by Siegrist (1996). High effort in combination with low rewards has been shown to have an impact on stress, sudden cardiac death, and hypertension.In this model job demands are a composite measure of time pressure and other quantitative demands, similar to the demands of the demand–control model. Reward can be in the form of wages, recognition, and opportunities for personal development or career opportunities. In our analyses we integrate all three reward measures in testing if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in wh ich there are no compensatory rewards.Job security and predictability are related to the conception of status control. Not having a high level of information on decisions that concern the work place is an invisible stressor that has been found to predict heart disease (see Iversen et al. , 1989). In the extensive Whitehall II study set-up in Britain in order to investigate the causes of the social gradient in morbidity and mortality, the impact of privatization on a former civil-servant department when job outcomes were not established was evaluated (see Stansfeld et al. , 1997).In the gap between the announcement of the privatization and the termination phase where the employees had gained more certainty about their future job status, there was an increase in the psychiatric morbidity compared with the morbidity in the period before the announcement of the privatization. Other psychosocial health factors included in the analyses in this paper are being exposed to aggression at the work place and role con? icts. Exposure to con? icts, teasing, or threats of violence can provoke stress, anxiety, and, in the long run, fatigue in the victims (see Hoegh, 2005).Role con? ict is a measure of con? icting demands and unclear responsibilities and is considered a source of chronic stress, also shown to have an impact on job satisfaction (Fisher and Gitelson, 1983). Physical job demands are included using a measure of the frequency of odd working positions, including having the back heavily bent forward with no support for hands or arms, twisted or bent body, hands lifted to shoulder height or higher, the neck heavily bent forward or squatting or kneeling (see Lund and Tsonka, 2003). Noise is measured on a dichotomous scale re? cting if workers are exposed to noise so high that one must raise his or her voice more than 75 per cent of the time in order to communicate with others. For a review of the effects of noise on mental health, see Stansfeld et al. (2000). 3. Method 3. 1 Elaboration of variables In this paper the wording of the question on job satisfaction is: ‘Are you satis? ed with your job? ’. The answers fall in four verbally labelled and ordered categories. Possible answers are:  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 6 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Yes, indeed’, ‘To some extent’, ‘Not so much’, and ‘No or very seldom’. For analytical purposes, answers in the category ‘Yes, indeed’ de? ne the outcome high job satisfaction whereas answers in categories ‘Not so much’ and ‘No or very seldom’ de? ne being dissatis? ed with the job. In general the variables are entered in the model in their original form. However the variable representing high demands in combination with low control, as well as the scale for social support, is composed of several measures. Social support consists of a practical and a psychological dimension, both of which are assessed in the questionnaires.The scales differ slightly from 1995 to 2000 and we have therefore dichotomized in a way that makes them equivalent. Hence we only look at situations where the employee either always receives help, support, and encouragement or not. There are separate questions for social support from colleagues and from leaders or superiors. Not always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors is assigned the lowest level, always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors are the two intermediate levels, and always receiving support from both groups is the highest level.In order to measure demands and level of control, a variable that re? ects the demands in different occupations has been constructed. Demands are de? ned as being high if work demands attention and full concentration almost all of the time, if the pace of work is perceived to be very fast, or when con? icting or unclear job demands are experienced. L ow control is de? ned as a combination of limited in? uence on planning one’s own work and low job variation. 3. 2 Data and the population Data on work environment and health in the working population were obtained from the Danish Work Environment Cohort Study (DWECS) (see Burr et al. 2003). The panel started out with a simple random sample drawn from the central population register in 1990, consisting of people aged 18–59 years per 1 October 1990. People in this panel were interviewed in 1995, 2000, and 2005 and the panel is continuously adjusted for ageing and immigration. The 1990 sample consisted of 9,653 individuals of which 8,664 participated (90 per cent). Of these, 6,067 (70 per cent) were wages earners. The following 1995 sample consisted of 10,702 persons, of which 8,572 participated (80 per cent).Of the participants in 1995, 5,649 (65. 9 per cent) were wage earners, 6. 7 per cent were enterprise owners, and 27. 4 per cent were not in the job market. Of the 5 ,649 wage earners in 1995, 4,647 also participated in the survey in 2000 (82. 3 per cent). The population used for the analyses in this paper are the respondents who were wage earners in 1995 and who also participated in DWECS as wage earners in 2000, corresponding to 3,773 individuals. The sample only contains information about present job in 1995 and 2000, respectively, and on tenure in these jobs.Information on possible intervening unemployment spells is only obtainable when linking the data set to a register of social payment transfers that have not been within the scope of this paper. Job satisfaction has shown to be related to job change as in, for example, Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). As for job change in our population, a total of 1,128 individuals have changed work place in the period. When dividing this subsample on job satisfaction levels as reported in 1995, 49. 7 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom satis? ed with the job change work place d uring the 5-year period whereas only 32. per cent of those who were highly or to some extent satis? ed with the job have changed job by 2000. Moreover, as wage earners who had a low degree of job satisfaction in 1995 have had a higher  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 7 incentive to leave the work force completely or start their own enterprise by 2000, the ? nal sample may be biased. To estimate the size of this potential bias, all participants in 2000 (including unemployed and enterprise owners) are divided among the four categories of job satisfaction levels reported in 1995.The results are that 21 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom, satis? ed are not in the work force in 2000. Of those who were highly or to some extent satis? ed with the job, only 14 per cent had left the work force. However, the total amount of dissatis? ed workers who have left the sample amounts to 58 perso ns and attrition should therefore not pose a serious threat to the reliability of results. After deducting observations with missing values on any of the analysed items, the cohort consisted of 3,412 individuals. See Table 1 for sample characteristics. 3. 3 Statistical analysesThe data resulting from measuring qualitative phenomena by the use of questionnaires are most often categorical, ordinally scaled data. This means that they are ordered, but with intervals that might be uneven. One example is measures of job satisfaction using a verbal rating scale, consisting of a discrete number of verbally described ordered categories. This type of data restricts the types of arithmetic operations that can be applied, which in turn limit the range of statistical methods suitable for the analysis. As noted earlier, another problem when analysing job satisfaction is that of unobserved heterogeneity.It causes problems because the regression model is based on the assumption that there is no cor relation between the explanatory variables and the error term. But as the error term captures the variation from potentially omitted variables such as ? xed personal traits that may in? uence the probability of a speci? c outcome on the job satisfaction variable, this type of model error is likely to occur in analyses of job satisfaction. A method to eliminate heterogeneity is the application of conditional likelihood in logistic regression, as shown by Chamberlain (1980) in the case of having a binary response variable.The principle applied here is that when using logistic regression with conditional likelihood and having more than one observation per object, the variables that do not change values are not used in the estimation. Unfortunately this also means that a variable like gender will be omitted from the estimation. The latter problem can be solved by either splitting up the analysis in two parts according to gender or by integrating gender effects as interaction effects, wh ich is the method adopted in this paper.As the scale on which job satisfaction is measured in the present analysis consists of four ordered categories with verbal ratings, ordinal comparability can be assumed and the response variable can be recoded to a binary variable without violating any assumptions. Conditional likelihood estimation is performed using the panel 1995–2000. Supplementary ordinary regressions are completed using the cross-sectional data from 2000. Predicted probabilities are generated from the cross-sectional data. Initially, correlation analysis using Kendall Tau was performed on all explanatory variables. The correlation coef? cient was below 0. 0 except between age and tenure, and between education in years and wage. Tenure is used as a substitute for age, as the sign of the correlation between age and job satisfaction also may depend on age (Clark et al. , 1998). Educational levels were dichotomized and tested in the model as with the gender interaction terms. The full model with variables given in Table 1 and Appendix A becomes:  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Age in years Mean Years of school Mean Std. deviation Professions Vocational training Marital status Cohabiting 39. 7 Public 13. 3 2. 57 34. 2 79. 3 35. 7 Private 995 12. 1 2. 19 53. 5  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 74. 7 80. 8 54. 4 12. 5 2. 36 40. 9 Private 2000 81. 9 33. 7 13. 7 2. 53 44. 7 Public Net month pay Mean, DKK. Std. deviation Tenure Mean Std. deviation Gender Male Female 64. 9 35. 1 7. 0 7. 52 10,891 4,909 Private Table 1. Summary of key demographic and economic variables in balanced panel (N = 3,412) 1995 36. 6 63. 4 8. 8 8. 10 9,932 4,102 Public 65. 0 35. 0 9. 0 8. 79 13,600 4,667 Private 2000 34. 5 65. 0 11. 4 9. 64 12,123 3,541 Public 8 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 9 JSij = ? i + ? marriedij + ? 2 Childrenij + ? 3High school ij + ? 4Short further educationij u + ? 5 Tenureij + ? 6 Leaderij + ? 7 unemployment rateij + ? 8 Noiseij + ? 9 Physical strainij + ? 10 Influenceij + ? 11High demand-low controlij + ? 12 Job securityij + ? 13 Informationij + ? 14 Role conflict ij + ? 15Social sup port ij + ? 16 Conflict at workij + ? 17 Flexible hoursij + ? 18 Logpay ij + ? 19 Job futurei + ? 20 Recognition leaderi + ? ij . The i subscript refers to different persons and j refers to different measurements for person i, Job satisfaction (JS) is the dependent variable, a the constant, b is the vector of the coef? ients of the explanatory variables, and eij is a random error term. Questionnaire answers on job future opportunities and recognition from leaders are only available for the 2000 cross-section. The estimation method is maximum likelihood and the statistical computer programs used were SAS 8. 2 and STATA 9. 0, the logit procedure and the clogit procedure. Results are presented as factor changes in odds, expre ssing the increase in the odds of being in the group having a high degree of job satisfaction, for a one point, or level, increase in the explanatory variable. 4. ResultsIn this section we present the empirical results based on four sets of analyses. (1) Preliminary regression analyses on gender differences. (2) Main results: Estimating the probability of the outcomes being highly satis? ed with the job and being dissatis? ed with the job using conditional likelihood estimation. (3) An ordinary logistic regression analysis using only data from 2000 with addition of recognition from leaders and future job opportunities to the model. This model is used for predicting the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when rewards are optimized and work environment factors are at unfavourable levels. 4) A fourth and last analysis has the purpose of validation of the question on job satisfaction and consists of a regression where job satisfaction as response variable is substitu ted by a question on the degree of motivation and engagement in one’s work. 4. 1 Preliminary analyses on gender differences Initially, tests for gender interaction effects are performed. For private-sector employees, social support shows both a signi? cant gender effect and a general effect on job satisfaction. For public-sector employees job security indicates a signi? ant gender effect and a general effect. In both cases being a woman increases the impact on the level of job satisfaction. The gender interaction effects are veri? ed when running separate regressions on genders still using the division on sectors. The results can be seen in Appendix B. Due to the loss of observations when using ? xed effects regressions these regressions are run on only the 2000 cross-section using ordinary logistic regression on the outcome being highly satis? ed. A few results turn out to be gender speci? : only for publicly employed men, having no education above high school level lowers t he probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position increases the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly. For publicly employed women only, the unemployment rate is signi? cantly and inversely related to the level of job satisfaction. Job security is signi? cant as suggested by the found interaction effects. For privately employed men and women, gender-speci? c effects are in? uence that increases the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal probability of high job satisfaction for men, job security that increases the likelihood of job satisfaction for women, and being exposed to aggression at the work place, which is only signi? cant for women. Moreover, the coef? cient of social support is larger for women than for men corresponding to the results of the gender analysis. In regard to wages, the effect is large and positive for both privately employed men and privately employed women but nonsigni? cant for both genders within the public sector.As discussed in the statistical analysis section multicollinarity existed between education in years and wage. Therefore educational levels are entered as separate variables to the model. Ultimately, only having no further education beyond high school and having a short further education were statistically signi? cant (p < 0. 05) and these levels are therefore kept in the model. 4. 2 Results using conditional likelihood on the combined panel of data from 1995 and 2000 The gender interaction effects found and the two variables representing educational level are now entered in the ? al model. The results are shown in Table 2. The left section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction and the right section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a low level of job satisfaction, the latter in order to test for a duality in t he impacts on job satisfaction as discussed in Section 2. Looking ? rst at the results for the economic and demographic measures, the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category are reduced with one-? th for every additional child for private employees, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 077). This result is matched in the public sector, in the way that the odds of having a low level of job satisfaction triple for an additional child. For privatesector employees, having no more than a high school education, opposed to having an educational level above high school, nearly triples the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category and also reduces the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? ant (p = 0. 063). Having a medium length or short further education nearly halves the odds of being highly satis? ed with one’s job. Educational level does not show any effects of sig ni? cance for public-sector employees. High tenure raises the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category for public-sector employees, a result not matched elsewhere. Within both sectors, the level of job satisfaction seems to be related to the size of the unemployment rate, and the scope of this relation is similar for private and public employees.The sizes of the odds indicate an 8. 3 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for private-sector employees and a 9 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for public-sector employees. In regard to occupational health factors, the public and the private sector have four factors in common: role con? cts nearly halves the odds of being in the high satisfaction category in both sectors, odd work positions decrease the odds of being in the high satisfaction category for private employees by one-third, and for public employees by nearly one-half. Increasing the level of information that concerns the work place raises the odds of being highly satis? ed by 71 per cent for privately employed and by 91 per cent for publicly employed workers. For each increase in the level of social support, the odds of being highly satis? ed increase by 58 per cent and 31 per cent, respectively. For public employees, increasing the level of in? ence increases the odds of being highly satis? ed with the job by 71 per cent, and having foreseeable job security above 12 months nearly doubles the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category. For private-sector  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1. 061 0. 811(*) 2. 881* 0. 558* 1. 009 1. 349 0. 917* 0. 525* 0. 681* 1. 045 0. 965 1. 532 1. 709* 0. 537* 1. 576* 0. 973 1. 246* 1. 698(*) 0. 755* — 0. 674–1. 672 0. 643–1. 023 1. 342–6. 186 0. 359–0. 868 0. 97 8–1. 040 0. 707–2. 573 0. 876–0. 960 0. 303–0. 907 0. 514–0. 903 0. 849–1. 292 0. 446–2. 091 0. 904–2. 596 1. 380–2. 116 0. 398–0. 23 1. 257–1. 978 0. 555–1. 705 1. 103–1. 409 0. 990–2. 913 0. 575–0. 992 — CI 1. 310 1. 047 0. 497 0. 796 0. 974 0. 460 0. 910* 0. 739 0. 579* 1. 710* 0. 595 2. 042(*) 1. 906* 0. 525* 1. 309* 0. 936 1. 035 1. 386 — 0. 150* OR ? xed 0. 639–2. 682 0. 755–1. 452 0. 153–1. 618 0. 431–1. 472 0. 932–1. 019 0. 150–1. 417 0. 858–0. 965 0. 346–1. 576 0. 358–0. 935 1. 142–2. 559 0. 058–6. 084 0. 891–4. 680 1. 355–2. 681 0. 337–0. 817 1. 092–1. 569 0. 552–1. 589 0. 850–1. 260 0. 463–4. 154 — 0. 027–0. 825 CI Public (Reg. 2) 1. 379 0. 803 0. 062(*) 0. 414 1. 046 3. 378 1. 006 3. 843* 1. 238 1. 943* 4. 482* 3. 01 2* 2. 112* 2. 247(*) 1. 496* . 825 0. 913 1. 176 — — OR ? xed 0. 360–5. 274 0. 394–1. 639 0. 003–1. 157 0. 085–2. 022 0. 951–1. 150 0. 320–35. 729 0. 906–1. 116 1. 238–11. 926 0. 653–2. 347 1. 176–3. 212 1. 425–14. 091 1. 016–8. 933 1. 222–3. 650 0. 949–5. 320 1. 059–2. 114 0. 679–4. 902 0. 641–1. 300 0. 275–5. 038 — — CI Private (Reg. 3) b 0. 744 3. 396* 11. 731 2. 327 1. 195* 0. 061 1. 017 0. 358 1. 250 3. 186(*) 0. 727 0. 939 2. 052(*) 1. 152 1. 586(*) 4. 557(*) 0. 805 1. 766 — — OR ? xed 0. 140–3. 948 1. 049–10. 993 0. 469–293. 833 0. 383–14. 120 1. 025–1. 395 0. 0 0. 861–1. 202 0. 046–2. 809 0. 573–2. 724 0. 975–10. 409 0. 071–7. 497 0. 127–6. 940 0. 96–4. 699 0. 348–3. 819 0. 936–2. 689 0. 962–21. 598 0. 372à ¢â‚¬â€œ1. 740 0. 160–19. 521 — — CI Public (Reg. 4) Low job satisfactionc Dichotomous variables. Gender interaction effects: Male = 1. c Scales are reversed for in? uence, job security, information, social support, and ? exible hours when estimating job dissatisfaction. CI: 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels:(*) 0. 05 < p < 0. 10, * 0. 0000 < p < 0. 05. Number of observations: Reg. 1 = 1,200, Reg. 2 = 650, Reg. 3 = 282, Reg. 4 = 128. -log (Likelihood): Reg. 1 = 317. 1, Reg. 2 = 172. 6, Reg. 3 = 50. 8, Reg. 4 = 27. 3. Pseudo R2s: Reg. 1 = 0. 24, Reg. 2 = 0. 3, Reg. 3 = 0. 48, and Reg. 4 = 0. 38. a Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Male social su pportb Male job securityb OR ? xed Private (Reg. 1) High job satisfaction Table 2. Results from conditional logistic regression, when estimating the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job and being dissatis? ed with one’s job.Divided on private-sector and public-sector employees Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 11  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 12 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal employees, three additional factors have signi? cant impacts on the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job: noise halves the odds of having the highest level of job satisfaction; more ? exible working hours increase the odds of being highly satis? ed by 25 per cent; and ? nally the odds of log pay suggest that when log pay is increased by one unit the odds of being in the high satisfaction category increase by nearly 70 per cent.The effect is borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 054). Comparing the results from the conditional likelihood estimation with the results from the ordinary logistic regression analyses (as shown in Appendix B), a few discrepancies emerge: for publicly employed men having no more than a high school education lowers the probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position raises the probability of a high level of job satisfaction using ordinary regression analysis only. In? uence raises the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly for privately employed men but not when using ? ed effects analyses. For public employees, being exposed to aggression at the work place lowers the probability of high job satisfaction when using ordinary logistic regression analysis and the corresponding result from the ? xed effects regression is an increase in the probability of dissatisfaction when being exposed to con? icts. For private employees odd work positions only show an effect in the ? xed effects analysis. Looking at the results of predicti ng being dissatis? ed with one’s job several factors impact on the probability of both having a high degree of job satisfaction and being dissatis? d with the job. This is the case in the private sector for noise, information, role con? icts, and social support, and in the public sector for in? uence, information, and social support. On the other hand, being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, or having a job with low control in combination with high demands only has an impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed with the job. 4. 3 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job Following the results from the regressions presented in the previous sections, pay is only a signi? ant predictor of having a high level of job satisfaction in the private sector, and did not seem to have any impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed. Within both labour economic studies and work psychology, future opportunities and recognition are also considered as rewards of work. As additional information is available on future opportunities and recognition in data from 2000, the following analysis incorporates all three types of rewards. In addition, people were asked in 1995 what they considered to be the most important aspect of their work.Of the three possible answers, 11. 2 per cent answered that the pay was good (6. 0 per cent in the public sector and 14. 8 per cent in the private sector), 58. 0 per cent answered that the work interested them (65. 6 per cent in the public sector and 52. 7 per cent in the private sector), and 30. 8 per cent answered that they got along well with colleagues (28. 4 per cent in the public sector and 32. 4 per cent in the private sector). The differences among public and private employees with regard to pay support the evidence from our analyses.However the results also suggest that alternative rewards may be considered although the capability of these rewards to compensa te for hazards in the work environment is more uncertain. The second question we have sought to investigate is whether employees exposed to hazards at work for which they receive above average rewards, when comparing with employees in non-hazardous work with average rewards, report the same level of job satisfaction. This was achieved by means of calculations of predicted probabilities. The factors tested were signi? ant predictors of both having a high level of job satisfaction and being dissatis? ed with the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 13 job. Initially, a regression on the 2000 cohort integrating recognition from leaders and future possibilities in the model was performed. The results from this regression are shown in Appendix C. The hazards analysed for private-sector employees are high noise, low levels of information and social support, and role con? icts. For the public sector, low l evels of information, in? ence, and social support are chosen. The results from varying the levels of these variables from their best, to their worst case, and at the same time maximizing the three types of rewards are shown in Table 3. The values in column 2 express the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six chosen work environment factors are in their most positive position and all other variables are held constant at the mean. Column 3 shows the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six hazards is at the most negative level.Columns 4, 5 and 6 give the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when the individual factors are at the worst case, single rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. Having the lowest level of information gives the lowest probability of having a high degree of job satisfaction observed for private-sector employees (0. 62). For public-sector employees the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job when information is at the lowest level is 0. 56. This is the case when all other variables are held at an average level.Moreover, the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job never exceeds 0. 75 as long as information is low, which is below both 0. 81 and 0. 79, the average probabilities of being highly satis? ed with the job within the public and the private sector. Low in? uence predicts the lowest probability of a high level of job satisfaction for publicsector employees, which is 0. 56. In this case it is not possible to reach the same level of job satisfaction when having the lowest possible level of in? uence, as compared with those experiencing a high level of in? uence even if receiving maximum rewards.The same is evident for social support for employees in both sectors. In contrast, the impacts of high noise or experiencing role con? icts on the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction are, however, neutralized by either the highest level of leader recognition or future opportunities, or a high wage, being among the best-paid 2 per cent in the sample. 4. 4 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly motivated in the job The analysis made in Section 4. 3 is repeated now predicting the probability of having the highest level of motivation when the levels of in? ence, social support, and information are at their worst, individual rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. The results of this regression are shown in Appendix D. Table 4 is analogous with Table 3. The results in Table 4 are consistent with the results in Table 3, except that receiving the highest level of leader recognition now seems to compensate privately employed for a low level of social support. 5. Discussion The way work environmental and socio-economic factors related to job satisfaction was not only in terms of either increasing job satisfaction or not, i. e. eing motivational factors or not. Thus in line with Herzberg et al. ’s (1959) theory some job factors also function as maintenance factors that are only being capable of making employees dissatis? ed with the job. In addition to this, some factors only had the impact of lowering the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job. These could be characterized as inconvenience factors with an unsettling effect on the motivation factors.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0. 713 0. 618 0. 727 0. 736 0. 563 0. 754 0. 598 . 798 0. 825 0. 881 0. 812 P(High JS) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 838 0. 879 0. 829 0. 520 0. 721 0. 556 0. 804 0. 727 0. 814 0. 821 P(High JS) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 701 0. 848 0. 730 0. 817 0. 743 0. 827 0. 834 P(High JS) when Leader Reco gnition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 717 0. 858 0. 746 0. 815 0. 741 0. 825 0. 832 P(High JS) when Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Probability of high Job Satisfaction for private employees when all variables at their mean: 0. 901. Probability of high Job Satisfaction for public employees when all variables at their mean: 0. 8052. Leader recognition is at its highest when the employee has answered ‘To a very high degree’ when asked: ‘Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? ’ and future opportunities are maximized when the employee has answered ‘To a very high degree’ when asked: ‘Are the future prospects of your job good? ’. Private sector Noise Information Social support Role con? ict Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High JS) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at heir means Table 3. Probability of a high level of Jo b Satisfaction (JS) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X) 14 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal 0. 268 0. 320 0. 338 0. 408 0. 161 0. 396 0. 467 P(High M) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 474 0. 532 0. 507 0. 380 0. 453 0. 187 0. 299 0. 353 P(High M) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 443 0. 518 0. 230 0. 414 0. 476 P(High M) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 448 0. 523 0. 233 0. 356 0. 415 P(High M) hen Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Notes: Motivation is at its highest when the employee has answered ‘Yes, indeed’ when asked: ‘Do you feel motivated and engaged in your work? ’; 39. 2% of the private employees and 46. 3% of the public employees answer ‘Yes, indeed’. Private sector Information Social support Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High M) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at their means Table 4. Probability of a high level of motivation (M) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X)Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 15  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 16 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal While adding to the credibility of results, many respondents unfortunately are lost when using conditional likelihood estimation as those with none changing characteristics are dropped from the analysis. When comparing the results of the ordinary regression analyses with the results using conditional likelihood estimation it did not seem that controlling for ? xed effects alters results in regard to the subjective measures used.A possible explanation is that most answers are put as frequencies of exposure during working hours leaving less room for misconceptions of the questions. About two-thirds of the results on work environment variables were comm on for public- and private-sector employees, with effects of just about the same size. Common factors were odd work positions and role con? ict, both factors lowering the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction, and information on decisions that concerns the work place and social support, of which higher levels predicted being highly satis? d with the job and lower levels predicted job dissatisfaction. Factors being speci? c for the private sector were noise and a combination of low control and high demands, whereas exposure to aggression at the work place and level of in? uence only seemed to have an effect on public employees. Being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, and having a job with low control in combination with high demands are examples of maintenance factors as the extent of their impact is con? ned to negative outcomes.In accordance with our results, public employees have been shown to have an increased risk of experiencing con? icts, te asing, or threats of violence at work (see Hoegh, 2005) whereas jobs with low control and high demands are typically found on industrial work sites within the private sector. In testing the ameliorative capability of rewards to compensate for the negative effects on job satisfaction deriving from exposure to (primarily psychosocial) hazards in the work environment, our results indicated only a limited effect for this type of compensating differential.In particular, rewards could not neutralize the effects on job satisfaction when employees have low levels of information on decisions that concerns the work place, social support, or, as a result for public employees only, in? uence. Most previous studies searching for evidence of compensating wage differentials for work environment hazards have been concerned with observable occupational health hazards (see Rosen, 1986), an exception being for very stressful work (French and Dunlap, 1998). The results were duplicated and even more pro nounced when the analysis was repeated substituting job satisfaction with motivation.Where the same fraction of public employees and private employees reported being highly satis? ed with the job, there was a discrepancy among the two sectors when comparing the fraction of employees reporting to be highly motivated. Thirty-nine per cent of the private employees and 46 per cent of the public employees reported to be the highly motivated. These results also correspond to the result that more public than private employees report that the most important aspect of their work was that the work interested them (66 per cent versus 53 per cent).The differences are small but the results support the theory that public employees should have higher intrinsic motivation (Benabou and Tirole, 2006). As wages did not show any signi? cant impact on the level of job satisfaction for public employees and neither had any signi? cant compensating value in regard to certain hazards at the job, the results also point to that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards as also seen in Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000).Very low probabilities of having a high level of job satisfaction (0. 56) and being highly motivated at the job (0. 16) were evident for public employees with the lowest level of in? uence. This clearly suggests that lack of in? uence can demotivate public employees and points to that  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 17 intrinsic motivation can be undermined if people feel controlled, and have little autonomy and freedom in performing work tasks (Deci and Ryan, 1985).Moreover, in the long run, lack of autonomy can pose a threat to value congruence between the employees and the organization, as suggested by Ren (2010). In regard to the results concerning gender differences, job security showed a general positive ef fect on job satisfaction as well as a gender-speci? c effect for employees in the public sector, suggesting women pursue job security more than men. For private employees, any effect of job insecurity would be dissatisfaction with the job and the size of the effect was just about the same for the two genders.In a study by D’Addio et al. (2003), job security was found to have the same effect for men and women after adjusting for ? xed effects. Without adjusting for ? xed effects, men seemingly valued job security the most. In the study by Clark et al. (1998), they ? nd that the extent to which women or men pursue job security varies among countries and that the differences are relatively small. These other studies have split the analyses on gender, which complicates comparison, and the differing time span of years over which the observations are made most ikely has an effect too. Clark et al. (1998) also ? nd that women report having good relations at work more often than men. Whereas Sloane and Williams (2000) ? nd that good interpersonal relations are most important for women. This is consistent with our ? nding that among private employees, women value social support more than men. The impact on job satisfaction from wages may also re? ect an effect of satisfaction with the job that derives from increased total expenditure opportunities as the question on job satisfaction in our study is one that re? cts overall job satisfaction. The results may also be dependent on the given wage structure as both wages and wages dispersion are lower within the public sector than within the private sector in Denmark at the time (Wadensjo, 1996). Finally, the impact on job satisfaction from the unemployment rate is large. D’Addio et al. (2003) found a similar negative correlation between job satisfaction and the rate of unemployment. In both the study by D’Addio et al. (2003) and our study, this relation is only signi? cant after controlling for ? xed ef fects.That is, apart from the result when making a separate analysis on gender and sector. It is noteworthy that the unemployment rate has these clear derived effects on the subjective feelings towards the job. According to the studies by Akerlof et al. (1988), a low unemployment rate makes it possible for unsatis? ed employees to change to jobs with more desired characteristics. Appendix A: List of work environment variables 1. Noise: Two levels according to answer to the below: 3/4 or more of the work day being exposed to noise that high that one must raise the voice to be able to speak with others. . Odd work positions: A score with a one point increase when respondents have marked a positive answer to the following questions: 3/4 or more of the working hours the work entails work with: 1. The back heavily bended forward with no support for hands or arms. 2. The body twisted or bended in the same way several times an hour. 3. The hands lifted to shoulder height or higher. 4. The neck heavily bended forward. 5. Squatting or kneeling.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 18 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal 3. In? uence: Four levels; Can you plan your own work? 4.Low control–high strain: In? uence: Four levels; Can you plan your own work? Job variation: Four levels; Is your job varied? Time pressure: Recoded into two levels; 1995: Does your work entail that you have to work under time pressure in order to get certain pieces of work done? 2000: Is it necessary to work very fast? Mental demands: Does your work demand all your attention and concentration? 5. Job security: Two levels according to: (1995): Certain or pretty sure of keeping the job the next 12 months. (2000): The present job is not a ? xed-term appointment with less than 12 months left. . Information: Four levels; Are you informed about decisions that concern your work place? 7. Unclearness of role and con? icting demands: Two levels according to the consent or not of either of two statements: It is clear what my responsibility. I experience con? icting demands in my work. 8. Social support: (four levels — No support, always support from colleagues but not always from superiors, always support from superiors but not always from colleagues, always support from colleagues and superiors) 1995: Do you receive help and encouragement from your superior/colleagues? 000: How often do you receive help and support from superior or colleagues? 9. Con? icts, teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats, or violence (two levels): 1995: Are you exposed to any form of unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or violence at your work place? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a ‘no’) 2000: Have you been exposed to unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or physical violence at your work place within the last 12 months? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a ‘noâ₠¬â„¢) 10.Flexibility of work schedule: Four levels according to the time space within a respondent can vary the daily working schedule without giving further notice. Can you change the placing of your working hours from day to day without making prearrangements, e. g. meet at work late or leave work early? 11. Recognition: Four levels: Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? 12. Future opportunities: Four levels: Are the future prospects of your work good?  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 19Appendix B: Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data. Divided on gender Men Private (Reg. 1) Women Public (Reg. 2) Private (Reg. 3) Public (Reg. 4) Coef. Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high demand 5. J ob security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error 0. 258 -0. 067 0. 237 0. 437* 0. 010 0. 181 -0. 011 -0. 587* -0. 176 0. 244* -0. 658 0. 087 0. 475* -0. 626* 0. 371* -0. 294 0. 175* 0. 639* 0. 1896 0. 0728 0. 1999 0. 1916 0. 0086 0. 2451 0. 0295 0. 2142 0. 1062 0. 0906 0. 4282 0. 3488 0. 0926 0. 1441 0. 0678 0. 2811 0. 0528 0. 2705 0. 1700 -0. 078 -0. 638* 0. 060 -0. 004 0. 743* 0. 010 0. 104 -0. 493* 0. 395* -0. 919 -0. 292 0. 759* -0. 578* 0. 314* -0. 732* 0. 143 0. 066 0. 2248 0. 0860 0. 2592 0. 1890 0. 0093 0. 3642 0. 0223 0. 2853 0. 1827 0. 1190 0. 6509 0. 2948 0. 1206 0. 1632 0. 0742 0. 1916 0. 0598 0. 2794 0. 307 -0. 026 0. 286 -0. 481* 0. 006 0. 348 0. 021 -0. 529(*) -0. 26 0. 121 -0. 991 0. 469* 0. 607* -0. 435* 0. 459 -0. 348* 0. 171* 0. 611* 0. 2327 0. 1004 0. 2709 0. 2177 0. 0109 0. 5299 0. 0369 0. 2808 0. 14 76 0. 1252 0. 5711 0. 3909 0. 1390 0. 2099 0. 0856 0. 2922 0. 0685 0. 2802 0. 167 -0. 015 -0. 117 -0. 1656 0. 010 -0. 267 -0. 029* -0. 044 -0. 380* 0. 247* -0. 003 0. 369* 0. 623* -0. 542* 0. 362* -0. 335* 0. 104* -0. 092 0. 1477 0. 0612 0. 1804 0. 1349 0. 0070 0. 2914 0. 0139 0. 1963 0. 1126 0. 0880 0. 5338 0. 1888 0. 0896 0. 1212 0. 0508 0. 1397 0. 0471 0. 2195 a Dichotomous variables. CI: 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels: (*) 0. 05 < p < 0. 10, * 0. 000 < p < 0. 05. Number of observations: Reg. 1 = 1,356, Reg. 2 = 959, Reg. 3 = 728, Reg. 4 = 1,754. -log (Likelihood): Reg. 1 = 639. 3, Reg. 2 = 483. 2, Reg. 3 = 363. 1, Reg. 4 = 907. 1. Pseudo R2s: Reg. 1 = 0. 17, Reg. 2 = 0. 18, Reg. 3 = 0. 17, and Reg. 4 = 0. 13. Appendix C: Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data (Reg. 1) (Reg. 2) Private (N = 2,057) Public (N = 1,296) OR Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemploymen t rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high strain . Job security 1 yeara 6. Information P>|z| CI lower CI higher OR P>|z| CI lower CI higher 1. 358 0. 934 1. 361 0. 653 1. 016 1. 252 1. 006 0. 628 0. 845 1. 121 0. 464 1. 186 1. 430 0. 042 0. 263 0. 064 0. 004 0. 024 0. 323 0. 796 0. 008 0. 058 0. 139 0. 033 0. 535 0. 000 1. 011 0. 829 0. 982 0. 488 1. 002 0. 802